The history of education begins with the teaching of traditional elements such as Indian religion, Indian mathematics, Indian logic in early Hindu and Buddhist learning centers such as the ancient Taxila (in modern Pakistan) and Nalanda (in India) before the general era. Islamic education became embedded with the establishment of the Islamic empire in the Indian subcontinent in the Middle Ages while the arrival of Europeans then brought western education to the colonial India. A series of actions that continued throughout the first half of the 20th century ultimately laid the foundation of education in the Republic of India, education in Pakistan and much of South Asia.
Video History of education in the Indian subcontinent
Sejarah awal
Initial education in India began under the supervision of a teacher/prabhu . Initially, education was open to all and seen as one of the methods to reach Moksha at that time, or enlightenment. As time passes, because of the complexity of superiority, education is given on the basis of caste and related tasks to be performed as members of a particular caste. The Brahmans learn about scriptures and religions while Knights are educated in various aspects of warfare. The Vaishya trade-learning caste and other specialized vocational courses while education is largely rejected to Angle , the lowest caste. The earliest educational places in India are often isolated from the main population. Students are expected to follow the strict monastic guidelines set by teachers and stay away from the cities in ashram . However, as the population increased under Gupta's administrative centers, city learning became more common and Cities like Varanasi and the Buddhist center in Nalanda became more visible.
Education in India is part of a traditional form of education closely linked to religion. Among the Heterodox creeds are the Jains and Buddhist schools. The heterodox Buddhist teachings are more inclusive and beyond the monastic order of Buddhist education centers are urban learning institutions such as Taxila and Nalanda where grammar, medicine, philosophy, logic, metaphysics, arts and crafts etc. are also taught. Early Buddhist secular higher education institutions like Taxila and Nalanda continued to function well into the general era and were attended by students from China and Central Asia.
About the issue of education for the noble Joseph Prabhu writes: "Outside the religious framework, kings and princes are educated in the arts and sciences related to government: politics (danda-n? Ti ), economics ( vartta ), philosophy ( anv? ksiki ), and historical tradition ( itihasa ). Here the authoritative source is
Maps History of education in the Indian subcontinent
The Early General Era - High Middle Ages
Chinese scholars such as Xuanzang and Yi Jing arrived at Indian educational institutions to examine Buddhist texts. Yi Jing also noted the arrival of 56 scholars from India, Japan, and Korea. Nevertheless, the Buddhist learning institutions slowly gave way to the revivalist tradition of Brahmanism during that time. Scholars from India also traveled to China to translate Buddhist texts. During the 10th century, a monk named Dharmadeva from Nalanda traveled to China and translated a number of texts. Another center in Vikramshila maintains close ties with Tibet. Guru Atisa Buddha was the chief monk at Vikramshila before his journey to Tibet.
Examples of royal patronage include the construction of buildings under the Rastrakuta dynasty in 945 CE. These institutions organize several residences for educators as well as state-sponsored education and arrangements for students and scholars. Similar arrangements were made by the Chola dynasty in 1024 AD, which provided state support to selected students in educational institutions. Temple schools from 12-13 centuries include schools in Nataraja temple located in Chidambaram which employs 20 librarians, of whom 8 are photocopied manuscripts and 2 are employed for verification of copied manuscripts. The remaining staff performs other tasks, including preservation and maintenance of reference materials.
Another establishment during this period was the Uddandapura institute founded in the 8th century under the aegis of the Pala dynasty. The institute developed a relationship with Tibet and became the center of Tantric Buddhism. During the 10th-11th century, the number of bhikkhus reached one thousand, equivalent to the power of monks in the sacred Mahabodhi complex. At the arrival of Islamic scholars Al Biruni India already has an established system of science and technology. Also in the 12th century, the invasion of the northern border of India disrupted the traditional education system when foreign troops invaded educational institutions, among other places.
The Late Medieval - Early Modern Era
With the advent of Islam in India traditional methods of education are increasingly coming under the influence of Islam. Pre-Mughal rulers such as Qutb-ud-din Aybak and other Muslim rulers started an institution that instilled religious knowledge. Scholars such as Nizamuddin Auliya and Moinuddin Chishti became prominent educators and established Islamic monasteries. Students from Bukhara and Afghanistan visit India to study the humanities and sciences.
Islamic educational institutions in India include traditional madrassas and maktabs that teach grammar, philosophy, mathematics, and laws influenced by the Greek tradition inherited by Persia and the Middle East before Islam spread from these areas to India. The hallmark of traditional Islamic education is its emphasis on the relationship between science and humanity. Among the educational centers in India is the 18th century Delhi is Madrasa Rahimiya under the supervision of Shah Waliullah, an educator who likes a balancing approach to the scriptures and Islamic science. The course at Madrasa Rahimiya sets 2 books on grammar, 1 book on philosophy, 2 books on logic, 2 books on astronomy and mathematics, and 5 books on mysticism. Another center of excellence emerged in Lucknow under Mulla Nizamuddin Sahlawi, who was educated at Firestone Mahal and provided a course called Dars-i-Nizami that combined traditional studies with a modern and laid emphasis on logic.
The educational system under Akbar's government adopted an inclusive approach with kings that supported additional courses: medicine, agriculture, geography, and texts from other languages ​​and religions, such as Patanjali's work in Sanskrit. Traditional science in this period was influenced by the ideas of Aristotle, Bh? Skara II, Charaka and Ibn Sina. This inclusive approach is not uncommon in Mughal India. The more conservative King Aurangzeb also liked subject teaching that could be applied to administration. The Mughal, in fact, adopted a liberal approach to science and as contact with Persia increased the more intolerant Ottoman school of educational manqul gradually replaced by the more relaxed school maqul.
The Middle Ages also saw an increase in private costs in India because the state failed to invest in the public education system. A teacher, or Riyazi , is an educated professional who can earn a decent living by performing tasks such as making calendars or generating earnings forecasts for nobles. Another trend in this era is the mobility among the professions, exemplified by Qaim Khan, a prince famous for his mastery in the craft of shoe leather and forging the cannon.
Traditional School
Before the British era, education in India began under the supervision of a teacher at a traditional school called gurukuls. The gurukul is supported by public donations and is one of the earliest forms of public school office. However Gurukul is only serving the Upper caste of Indian society and the extraordinary mass is denied formal education.
Prior to the introduction of English education, indigenous education was given greater importance from the early days to the colonial era.
In every village in India that has retained any shape. The fundamentals of knowledge are sought to be given, no child, except the outcasts (who do not form part of society), who can not read, to write, by password; in the last branch of learning, they profess the most adept.
According to a survey conducted in the Madras region, there are 11,758 schools and 740 centers of higher education in the Madras Presidency. The number of students is 188,650. Around 1830 there were 100,000 village schools in Bengal and Bihar areas only.. After the introduction of British education, the number of these native educational institutions dropped dramatically.
Colonial Era
The Jesuits introduced India to the European college system and book printing, through the establishment of Saint Paul College, Goa in 1542. French traveler FranÃÆ'§ois Pyrard de Laval, who visited Goa c. 1608, described the College of St. Paul, praised the various subjects taught there for free. Like many other European travelers visiting the College, he noted that there are currently 3,000 students, out of all Asian missions. The library is one of the largest in Asia, and the first printing press was installed there.
British India
The colonial authorities had a sharp debate on policy. It is divided into two schools - orientalists, who believe that education should take place in the Indian language (they prefer classical or court-like languages ​​like Sanskrit or Persian) or utilitarian (also called anglikists) like Thomas Babington Macaulay, who strongly believes that traditional Indians do not teaches anything about modern skills; the best education for them will happen in English. Macaulay introduced English education in India, especially through his famous minutes in February 1835. He called for an educational system that would create a colonized Indian class that would serve as a cultural mediator between Britain and India. Macaulay succeeded in applying the ideas previously proposed by Lord William Bentinck, the governor-general since 1829. Bentinck favored the replacement of Persian by the English as the official language, the use of English as the medium of instruction, and the English-speaking Indian language training as a teacher. He was inspired by utilitarian ideas and called for "useful learning." However, Bentinck's ideas were rejected by the East India Company Board of Directors and he retired as governor-general.
Britain has finally made education, in English - a high priority hoping it will accelerate modernization and reduce administrative costs.
British education was solidified to India when missionary schools were founded in the 1820s. The new policy of 1835 gave rise to the use of English as the medium of instruction for advanced topics.
Villages
Before the British era, education in India began under the supervision of a teacher at a traditional school called gurukuls. In the colonial era, the gurukul system began to decline as the system promoted by the British began to gradually take over. Between 1881-82 and 1946-47, the number of primary English schools grew from 82,916 to 134,866 and the number of students at the English School grew from 2,061,541 to 10,525,943. The literacy rate, according to the Indian Census before independence, rose from 3.2 percent in 1881 to 7.2 percent in 1931 and 12.2 percent in 1947.
University
India builds a solid educational network (mostly for men) with Western curriculum based on instruction in English. To further advance their careers, many ambitious upper-class men with money, including Gandhi, Nehru, and Muhammad Ali Jinnah went to England, primarily to obtain legal education at the Court's Inn. In 1890 about 60,000 Indians had been accepted mathematically, especially in liberal arts or law. About the third incoming public administration, and a third to become a lawyer. The result is a highly educated professional state bureaucracy. In 1887 from 21,000 middle-level civil service pledges, 45% were held by Hindus, 7% by Muslims, 19% by Eurasians (European father and Indian mother), and 29% by Europeans. Of the top 1000 positions, almost everything is held by the British, usually with a Oxbridge degree.
Raj, often working with local philanthropists, opened 186 colleges and universities. Starting with 600 students spread across 4 universities and 67 colleges in 1882, the system is growing rapidly. More precisely, there has never been a "system" under Raj, as each country acts independently and funded schools for Indians from largely private sources. In 1901 there were 5 universities and 145 colleges, with 18,000 students (almost all men). The curriculum is Western. By 1922 most schools were under the control of elected provincial governments, with few roles for the national government. In 1922 there were 14 universities and 167 colleges, with 46,000 students. In 1947 21 universities and 496 colleges operate. Universities do not initially teach or research; they just do the examination and give the title.
Madras Medical College opened in 1835, and received women so they could care for a population of women who traditionally avoided medical care under qualified male professionals. The concept of educated women among medical professionals gained popularity during the late 19th century and in 1894, Women's Christian Medical College, an exclusive medical school for women, was founded in Ludhiana in Punjab.
England founded the State University College in Lahore, in Pakistan today in 1864. The institute was originally affiliated with the University of Calcutta for review. The prestigious Punjab University, also in Lahore, is the fourth university founded by colonials in South Asia, in 1882.
Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, founded in 1875, is the first modern institution of higher education for Muslims in India. In 1920 it became the Muslim University of Aligarh and was the main intellectual center of Muslim political activity. The initial goal was to train Muslims for British service and prepare the elite who will attend universities in the UK. After 1920, this became the center of political activism. Prior to 1939, faculty and students supported the nationalist movement throughout India. However, when the Second World War began political sentiment shifted towards demands for the Muslim separatist movement. His intellectual support proved significant in the success of Jinnah and the Muslim League.
Engineering
The East India Company in 1806 founded the Haileybury College in England to train administrators. In India, there are four civil engineering colleges; the first is Thomason College (Now IIT Roorkee), founded in 1847. The second is Bengal Engineering College (now Institute of Technology, Science and Technology of India, IIEST). Their role is to provide civil engineers to the Indian Ministry of Public Works. Both in Britain and in India, the administration and management of science, engineering and engineering education are conducted by officers from Royal Engineers and the Indian Army equivalent, (usually referred to as auxiliary officers). This tendency in civil/military relations continued with the founding of the Royal Indian Engineering College (also known as Cooper's Hill College) in 1870, specifically to train civil engineers in England for assignments with the Indian Ministry of Public Works. The Indian Public Works Department, although technically a civilian organization, relied on military engineers until 1947 and beyond.
The growing awareness of the need for technical education in India led to the establishment of institutions like the Indian Institute of Science, founded by philanthropist Jamshetji Tata in 1909. In the 1930s, India had 10 institutions offering engineering courses. However, with the advent of the Second World War in 1939, the "Technician Training Scheme of War" under Ernest Bevin began, thereby laying the foundation of modern engineering education in India. Later, the scientific educational development plan under Ardeshir Dalal began in 1944.
Criticism
According to President of the National Congress of India C. Sankaran Nair, 1919, Minutes of disagreement, the British government restricts indigenous education:
Efforts were then made by the Government to limit higher education and secondary education leading to higher education for boys in a prosperous state. This is again done not for the benefit of healthy education but for political reasons. Rules were calculated to limit the diffusion of education in general and among the poorer boys in particular. Conditions of acknowledgment for "grants" - sticks and variety - are established and enforced, and the non-compliance of any of these conditions can be borne out by serious consequences. The cost is raised to a level that considers the classroom circumstances that are switching to school, not abnormal. When there is an objection that the minimum cost will be a great difficulty for poor students the answer is - the student has no business to receive such education. Private school managers who deposit the cost in whole or in part are sanctioned by a reduction of aid funds. Many schools are opposed to high costs but those who receive them are granted by the British government. Together with fixed costs there are schedule fixes, printed books etc. Students must attend regular classes which is a problem for students who are members of a farming family. These rules are undoubtedly the effects of examining the enormous expansion of education that will occur. This is a clear explanation of the nature of nature and the advancement of secondary education which is extremely unsatisfactory and will never be fixed until we are ready to provide education to the boys themselves or provide sufficient grants to private schools to enable them to be managed with teachers who are competent. We are not currently ready to do both. English education, according to this policy, should be limited to rich classes. They, it is believed, will not trouble the government. For this purpose, the old educational system in which a student can demand his studies from the lowest grade to the highest grade has been altered.
Frykenberg examined the period from 1784 to 1854 to suggest that education helps to integrate various elements of Indian society, thus creating a new common bond between conflicting loyalties. The native elite demand modern education. The University of Madras, founded in 1857, became the most important recruiting ground for generations of more trained officials. This exclusive and elected leadership is almost entirely "clean" and especially Brahman. It holds power both in the administration of the empire and in the reign of the princes in the south. The position of this mandarin class was never seriously challenged until entering the 20th century.
Ellis argues that Indian educational historians generally limit their arguments to the very narrow themes associated with colonial domination and education as a means of control, resistance, and dialogue. Ellis stressed the need to evaluate the real education experienced by most Indian children, who are outside the classroom. Public education spending varies dramatically throughout the region with western and southern provinces spending three to four times the eastern provinces. The reason involves historical differences in land taxes. But the level of attendance and literacy is not too skewed.
Bihar and Bengal Villages
Jha argues that local schools for pre-teen children are in developing countries in the thousands of Bihar and Bengal villages until the early decades of the nineteenth century. They are village institutions, run by village elders with local funds, where their children (from all caste groups and communities) can, if fathers want, receive useful skills. However, the UK's policy on education and land control has adversely affected both the village structure and the secular education village institutions. The British legal system and the rise of caste consciousness since the second half of the nineteenth century made it worse. Gradually, the village as the basis of secular identity and solidarity became too weak to create and maintain its own institutions at the end of the nineteenth century and the traditional system rotted.
Science
Kumar argues that the British administration during the nineteenth century did not take adequate steps to help develop Western science and technology in India and instead focused more on art and humanity. Until 1899 only the Bombay University offered a separate degree in science. In 1899 B.Sc and M.Sc. courses are also supported by the University of Calcutta. At the end of the 19th century, India lags behind in Western science and technology and related education. However, the nobility and aristocracy in India largely continued to promote the development of science and technical education, both traditional and western.
While some subjects related to science were not allowed in government curricula in the 1850s, private institutions were also unable to attend science programs due to the lack of funds needed to build laboratories, etc. The cost of scientific education under British rule is also high. The salaries to be earned by a person in the colonial administration were very few and made the prospect of getting a higher education bleak because the native population was not employed for a high position in the colonial setting. Even indigenous peoples who achieve higher education face discrimination in terms of wages and privileges.
Kumar goes on to state that the British detachment of the study of Western science in India is that Britain itself gradually surpassed science and technology by German rivals Germany and the United States that grew rapidly so that the prospect of Raj Britania adopting a world-class science policy on its colonies declined. However, Deepak Kumar noted the British turn for professional education during the 1860s and the French initiative in raising awareness on science and technology in the French colony.
See also
- List of colonial universities in British India
Note
References
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