The The Republic of China is a sovereign state in East Asia, occupying modern China, and for parts of its history Mongolia and Taiwan. Founded in 1912, after the Qing dynasty, the last imperial dynasty, was overthrown in the Xinhai Revolution. The first President of the Republic, Sun Yat-sen, served only briefly before handing over the position to Yuan Shikai, former leader of the Beiyang Army. His party, later led by Song Jiaoren, won a parliamentary election held in December 1912. Song was killed shortly after, and the Beiyang Army headed by Yuan Shikai took full government control in Beijing. Between late 1915 and early 1916, Yuan tried to restore the monarchy, before resigning after the popular riots. After Yuan's death in 1916, gang members in the former Beiyang Army claimed their autonomy and clashed with each other. During this period, the republican government's authority was weakened by the restoration of the Qing government.
In 1925, the Kuomintang Sun established a rival government in the southern city of Guangzhou along with the new Chinese Communist Party. The economy in the north, which was too much burdened to support the adventurous warlords, collapsed in 1927-28. General Chiang Kai-shek, who became KMT's leader after Sun's death, started a Northern Expeditionary Military campaign to overthrow the government in Beijing. The government was ousted in 1928 and Chiang established a new nationalist government in Nanjing. In April 1927, he massacred the communists in Shanghai, forcing the communists into an armed insurrection, marking the start of the Civil War of China.
There was industrialization and modernization, but also the conflict between the Nationalist government in Nanjing, the communists, the remnants of warlords, and the Japanese Empire. The Nation-building took the backseat to battle with Japan when the Japanese Imperial Army launched an offensive against China in 1937 that turned into a full-scale invasion. After the unconditional surrender of Japan in 1945, the battle quickly began between the KMT and the Communists, with both parties receiving foreign aid because of ongoing friction between the Soviet Union and the United States. In 1947, the Constitution of the Republic of China replaced the Organic Law of 1928 as the basic law of the state. In 1949, the Communists established the People's Republic of China, overthrowing the Nationalist government on the mainland, who retreated to Taiwan.
Video Republic of China (1912-1949)
Histori
A republic was officially established on 1 January 1912 after the Xinhai Revolution, which began with the Wuchang Rebellion on October 10, 1911, successfully overthrew the Qing Dynasty and ended more than two thousand years of imperial rule in China. From its founding until 1949 it was based on mainland China. The central authority of wax and reduced in response to warlords (1915-28), Japanese invasion (1937-45), and full-scale civil war (1927-49), with the strongest central authority during the Nanjing Decade (1927-1937), China is under the control of the Kuomintang (KMT) under an authoritarian one-party military dictatorship.
At the end of World War II in 1945, the Japanese Empire surrendered control of Taiwan and its island groups to the Allied Forces, and Taiwan was placed under the administrative control of the Republic of China. The mainland Chinese Communist takeover in the Chinese Civil War in 1949 left the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) with only control of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other small islands. With the loss of 1949 Chinese mainland in the civil war, the ROC government withdrew to Taiwan and the KMT announced Taipei as the temporary capital. The Chinese Communist Party took over all of mainland China and established the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing.
Establishment
In 1912, after more than two thousand years of imperial rule, a republic was established to replace the monarchy. The Qing dynasty that preceded the republic experienced century instability throughout the 19th century, suffered both internal rebellion and foreign imperialism. The ongoing instability eventually led to the explosion of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, whose attacks on foreigners led to an invasion by the Eight Nations Alliance. China signed the Boxer Protocol and paid substantial compensation to foreign countries: 450 million tael of fine silver (about $ 333 million or Ã, Â £ 67 million at current exchange rates). Institutional reform programs proved too little and too late. Only the lack of an alternative regime extends its existence until 1912.
The establishment of the Republic of China developed from the Wuchang Rebellion against the Qing government on October 10, 1911. The date is now celebrated annually as the national day of the ROC, also known as "Ten Dual Days". On December 29, 1911, Sun Yat-Sen was elected president by Nanjing assembly with representatives from 17 provinces. On January 1, 1912, he was officially inaugurated and promised "to overthrow the unjust government led by Manchu, consolidate the Republic of China and plan the welfare of the people".
Sun, however, did not have the military power necessary to defeat the Qing government by force. As a compromise, the new republic negotiated with the commander of the Beiyang Army, Yuan Shikai, with a presidential pledge in the republic if he wished to remove the power of the Qing emperor. Yuan agreed with the deal, and the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty Puyi was forced to abdicate in 1912, and Yuan was officially elected president of the ROC in 1913. He ruled with military power and ignored the republican institution established by his predecessor. , threatening to execute members of the Senate who disagree with his decision. He immediately disbanded the ruling Kuomintang party (KMT), banned "secret organizations" (which implicitly included the KMT), and ignored the interim constitution. The democratic election effort in 1912 ended with the killing of the elected candidate by a man recruited by Yuan. In the end, Yuan declared himself Emperor of China in 1915. China's new ruler tried to improve centralization by abolishing the provincial system; However, this move angered the nobility along with the provincial governor, usually a military man. Many provinces declared independence and became state warlords. Increasingly unpopular and abandoned by his supporters, Yuan surrendered to Emperor in 1916 and died of natural causes shortly thereafter.
China degenerated into a period of warlords. Sun, forced into exile, returned to Guangdong province in the south with the help of warlords in 1917 and 1922, and established successive rival governments to the Beijing government of Beiyang; he re-established the KMT in October 1919. Sun's dream was to unite China by launching a northern expedition. However, he lacks military support and funding to make it happen.
Meanwhile, the Bei government is struggling to maintain power, and open and wide debates evolved over how China should confront the West. In 1919, a student protested the weak government's response to the Treaty of Versailles, deemed unfair by Chinese intellectuals, leading to the Fourth of May movement. This demonstration aims to spread Western influences to replace Chinese culture. It is also in this intellectual climate that the influence of Marxism spread and became more popular. It eventually led to the establishment of the Chinese Communist Party in 1921.
Nanjing Decorations
After Sun's death in March 1925, Chiang Kai-shek became the leader of the KMT. In 1926, Chiang led the Northern Expedition through China with the aim of defeating Beiyang warlords and uniting the country. Chiang received the help of the Soviet Union and the Chinese Communists; however, he immediately rejected his Soviet advisor. He was convinced, not without reason, that they wanted to get rid of the KMT (also known as the Nationalist) and take control. Chiang decided to attack first and clean up the Communists, killing thousands of them. At the same time, other violent conflicts occur in China; in the South, where the Communists had a higher number, the Nationalist supporters were slaughtered. This event eventually led to the Chinese Civil War between the Nationalists and the Communists. Chiang Kai-shek pushed the Communists into the interior as he sought to destroy them, and established a government with Nanking as its capital in 1927. In 1928, Chiang's army overthrew the Beiyang government and united the entire nation, at least nominally, to begin the so-called Nanjing Decade.
According to Sun Yat-sen's theory, the KMT will rebuild China in three phases: the phase of military rule through which the KMT will take power and reunite China with power; a phase of political guidance; and finally the phase of constitutional democracy. In 1930, the Nationalists, after taking military rule and reuniting China, began the second phase, declared a temporary constitution and started a period called "tutelage". The KMT was criticized for instituting totalitarianism, but claimed to have sought to build a modern democratic society. Among other things, it was created at the time Academia Sinica, the Central Bank of China, and other institutions. In 1932, China sent the team for the first time to the Olympics. Laws are passed and campaigns are set up to promote women's rights. Ease and speed of communication also allows focus on social issues, including village issues. The Rural Reconstruction Movement is one of many that utilizes new freedoms to raise social awareness.
Historians like Edmund Fung argue that building democracy in China at that time is impossible. The nation was at war and divided between Communists and Nationalists. Corruption in government and lack of direction also prevent significant reforms from happening. Chiang realized the lack of real work done in his government and told the State Council: "Our organization got worse and worse... many staff members just sat at their desks and stared into space, others read newspapers and others slept. " The Nationalist government wrote a draft constitution on May 5, 1936.
During this time a series of major wars took place in western China, including the Bubble Rebellion, the Sino-Tibetan War and the Soviet invasion of Xinjiang. Although the central government nominally controlled the whole country during this period, large areas of China remained under semi-autonomous rule of local warlords, provincial military leaders or coalition of warlords. The nationalist government was the strongest in the eastern region around the capital of Nanjing, but regional militaries like Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan maintained considerable local authority. The Central Plains War in 1930, Japanese aggression in 1931 and the Long March Red Army in 1934 caused more power for the central government, but there continued to be opposition of foot and even direct opposition, as in the Fujian Rebellion of 1933 - 34.
Second World War (1937-45)
Some Chinese have illusions about Japan's desire in China. Hungry for raw materials and suppressed by an ever-increasing population, Japan began Manchuria's seizure in September 1931 and founded the former Qing emperor Puyi as head of the Manchukuo puppet state in 1932. The loss of Manchuria, and its enormous potential for the development of war industry and industry, was a blow to the Kuomintang economy. The League of Nations, established at the end of World War I, can not act in the face of Japanese defiance.
Japan began to push from the south of the Great Wall to northern China and coastal provinces. Chinese anger against Japan was predictable, but anger was also directed against Chiang and the Nanking government, which at that time were more busy with anti-Communist extermination campaigns than against the Japanese invaders. The importance of "internal unity before external harm" was forcibly taken home in December 1936, when Chiang Kai-shek, in what is now known as the Xi'an Incident, was kidnapped by Zhang Xueliang and forced to commune with the Communists against the Japanese in the Kuomintang-CCP United Front against Japan.
The Chinese resistance stiffened after July 7, 1937, when there was a clash between Chinese and Japanese troops outside Beiping (later Peking and Beijing) near Marco Polo Bridge. This battle led to an open, though undeclared, battle between China and Japan. Shanghai fell after a three-month battle in which Japan suffered many casualties, both in the army and its navy. The capital of Nanking fell in December 1937. Followed by a mass murder and rape party known as the Nanking Massacre. The national capital briefly in Wuhan was later removed in an epic retreat to Chongqing, the center of government until 1945. In 1940, Wang Jingwei's collaborative regime was founded with its capital at Nanking, proclaiming itself a legitimate "Republic of China" in opposition to the Chiang Kai-shek government , although his claim was significantly impeded by his nature as a Japanese puppet state that controlled a limited number of territories, along with the subsequent defeat at the end of the war.
The Unity Front between the Kuomintang and the CCP comes with a beneficial effect on the beleaguered CCP, though Japan enjoys a stable territorial advantage in northern China, the coastal regions and the wealthy Yangtze River Valley in central China. After 1940 the conflict between the Kuomintang and the Communists became more frequent in areas not under Japanese control. The entry of the United States into the Pacific War after 1941 changed the nature of their relationship. The Communists expanded their influence wherever opportunities arose through mass organizations, administrative reforms and land and tax reform measures that benefited the peasants and the spread of their organizational networks, while the Kuomintang sought to neutralize the spread of Communist influence. Meanwhile, northern China was politically infiltrated by Japanese politicians in Manchukuo using facilities like Wei Huang Gong.
In 1945, the Republic of China emerged from a war that was nominally a major military force but was actually a nation that was economically prostrate and on the brink of an all-out civil war. The economy is worsening, weakened by foreign military war demands and internal strife, by inflation and by invaders, speculation and national hoarding. Famine comes after the war, and millions of people become homeless due to flooding and uneasy conditions in many parts of the country. This situation was further complicated by the Allied treaty at the Yalta Conference in February 1945 that brought Soviet troops to Manchuria to speed up the cessation of the war against Japan. Although the Chinese were not present at Yalta, they had consulted and agreed to ask the Soviets to enter the war with the conviction that the Soviet Union would only deal with the Kuomintang government.
After the end of the war in August 1945, the Nationalist Government returned to Nanjing. With American help, Nationalist troops moved to take delivery of Japan in North China. The Soviet Union, as part of the Yalta agreement that allowed the sphere of Soviet influence in Manchuria, dismantled and erased more than half of the industrial equipment left by the Japanese. The Soviet presence in northeastern China allowed the Communists to move long enough to arm themselves with the equipment surrendered by retreating Japanese troops. Problems to rehabilitate areas previously occupied by Japan and to reconstruct the nation from protracted war damage are astounding.
Post World War II
During World War II, the United States became increasingly involved in Chinese affairs. As an ally, he began in late 1941 on a massive military and financial assistance program to the harsh Nationalist Government. In January 1943 both the United States and Britain led the way in revising their unequal treaty with China from the past. Within months the new agreement was signed between the United States and the Republic of China for the deployment of American troops in China for a joint war effort against Japan. In December 1943, the Chinese Exceptions Act of the 1880s and the subsequent legislation enacted by the United States Congress to restrict Chinese immigration to the United States were lifted.
The wartime policy of the United States was originally to help China become a strong ally and a stable force in postwar East Asia. As the conflict between the Kuomintang and the Communists intensified, the United States sought unsuccessfully to reconcile rival forces for a more effective anti-Japanese war effort. After Delivery of Japan, Taiwan submitted from Japan to the Republic of China on 25 October 1945 (Day of Retrocession). Towards the end of the war, US Marines were used to hold Beiping (Beijing) and Tianjin against the possibility of Soviet attacks, and logistical support was given to Kuomintang troops in northern and northeastern China. To achieve this goal, on September 30, 1945, the 1st Marine Division arrived in China, charged with security in the areas of the Shandong Peninsula and eastern Hebei Province. During the war, China was one of the Four Great World War II Powers and later became the Four Police, who was the precursor of the United Nations Security Council.
Through the influence of mediation the United States military ceasefire was set in January 1946, but the battle between the Kuomintang and the Communists soon resumed. The public opinion about the administrative incompetence of the Nationalist government increased and instigated by the Communists in national student protests against the erroneous treatment of Shen Chong's rape in early 1947 and other national protests against monetary reform later that year. Realizing that no American effort that did not involve large-scale armed intervention could stop the coming war, the United States withdrew the American mission, led by General George C. Marshall, early in 1947. The Chinese Civil War became widespread; fighting rages not only for the region but also for the allegiance of cross-section of the population. The United States is helping the Nationalists with massive economic loans and weapons but no combat support.
Later, the government of the Republic of China seeks to gain popular support through internal reform. The effort was in vain, however, because of the rampant government corruption and the political and economic turmoil that accompanied it. In late 1948 the position of the Kuomintang was bleak. The undemocratic and undisciplined Kuomintang forces proved unsuitable for the motivated and disciplined Communist Peoples Liberation Army, formerly known as the Red Army. Communists are well established in the north and northeast. Although the Kuomintang possessed an advantage in numbers of men and weapons, controlling much larger territories and populations than their enemies and enjoying great international support, they were exhausted by the long war with the Japanese and in the battle among the generals. They also lost the propaganda war to the Communists, with people tired of the Kuomintang corruption and longing for peace.
In January 1949, Beiping was taken by the Communists without a fight, and his name was changed back to Beijing. After Nanjing's arrest on April 23, major cities moved from Kuomintang to Communist control with minimal resistance until November. In many cases, the surrounding countryside and surrounding towns have been under Communist influence long before the cities. Finally, on October 1, 1949, the Communists led by Mao Zedong founded the People's Republic of China. During this period Chiang Kai-shek declared martial law in May 1949 while several hundred thousand Nationalist troops and two million refugees, mainly from government and business communities, fled from mainland China to Taiwan; the only remaining in China are isolated isolation pockets. On December 7, 1949 Chiang proclaimed Taipei, Taiwan, the temporary capital of the Republic of China.
During the civil war, both Nationalists and Communists committed mass atrocities with millions of non-combatants killed by both sides during the civil war. Benjamin Valentino estimated that atrocities in the Chinese Civil War resulted in deaths between 1.8 million and 3.5 million people between 1927 and 1949. Cruelty included deaths from conscription and massacres.
Maps Republic of China (1912-1949)
Government
China's first national government was established on January 1, 1912, in Nanjing, with Sun Yat-sen as its interim president. The provincial delegation was sent to confirm the authority of the national government, and they then also formed the first parliament. The power of the national government is limited and short-lived, with the generals controlling the provinces of central and northern China. This limited act endorsed by the government includes the official release of the Qing dynasty and several economic initiatives. Parliamentary authority becomes nominal; the violation of the Constitution by Yuan was filled with a halfhearted movement against criticism, and Kuomintang members of parliament who surrendered their membership in the KMT offered 1,000 pounds. The Yuan retained power locally by sending military generals into provincial governors or by obtaining the allegiance of those already in power.
When Yuan died, the parliament of 1913 was re-established to give legitimacy to the new government. However, the real power of time passes to military leaders, forming a period of warlords. Impotent government still has its use; When World War I began, some Western and Japanese powers wanted China to declare war on Germany, to liquidate German ownership.
There are also some government warlords and doll countries sharing the same name.
The Republic of China's government was established based on the ROC Constitution and the Three Principles of its People, which states that "[the ROC] will become a democratic republic of the people, to be ruled by the people and for the people."
In February 1928, the Fourth Plenum Session of the 2nd National Congress of the Kuomintang held in Nanjing passed the Reorganization of the Nationalist Governance Law. This Act stipulates that the Nationalist Governments shall be directed and administered under the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang, with the Nationalist Governance Committee elected by the Central Committee of the KMT. Under the Nationalist Administration there are seven ministries - Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, Transportation, Justice, Agriculture and Mining, Trade in addition to institutions such as Supreme Court, Yuan Control and General Academy.
With the enactment of the Nationalist Government Organic Act in October 1928, the government was reorganized into five different branches or Yuan, the Executive Yuan, Legislative Yuan, Judicial Yuan, Yuan Examination, and Control Yuan. Chairman of the National Government will be the head of state and commander in chief of the National Revolutionary Army. Chiang Kai-shek was appointed as the first Chairman of the Nationalist Government, a position he would retain until 1931. The Organic Law also determined that the Kuomintang, through the National Congress and its Central Executive Committee, would exercise sovereign power during the period of political oversight, and the Political Council The KMT will guide and oversee the Nationalist Government in the implementation of important national affairs, and that the board has the power to interpret or change organic law.
Shortly after the Second China War, a long delayed constitutional convention was called to meet at Nanking in May 1946. Amid the heated debate, this convention adopted many demands from several parties, including the KMT and the Communist Party, into the Constitution. This Constitution was announced on 25 December 1946 and came into force on December 25, 1947. Below, the Central Government is divided into President and five Yuan, each responsible for a single Governmental power. No one is accountable to any other except for certain obligations such as the President appointing the Chief Executive Yuan. In the end the President and Yuan report to the National Assembly, which represents the will of the Citizen.
The first election for the National Assembly took place in January 1948, and the Assembly was summoned to meet in March 1948. It was elected President of the Republic on March 21, 1948, formally ending the KMT party's government beginning in 1928 - even though the President was a member of the KMT. This election, though praised by at least one US observer, was not well received by the Communist Party, which would soon begin an open armed insurgency.
Foreign relations
Before the Nationalist government was ousted from the mainland, the Republic of China had diplomatic relations with 59 countries such as Australia, Canada, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, France, Germany, Guatemala, Honduras, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Panama, Siam, , Spain, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Vatican City. Most of this relationship continued at least until the 1970s, and the Republic of China remained a member of the United Nations until 1971.
Administrative division
ROC has complicated relations with Mongolia (Outer Mongolia). As the successor of the Qing dynasty, the ROC claimed the Outer Mongolia, and temporarily occupied it by the Beiyang government. The ROC Nationalist government recognized Mongolian independence in the 1945 Sino-Soviet Friendship Agreement due to pressure from the Soviet Union but the recognition was lifted in 1953 during the Cold War.
Economy
In the early years of the Republic of China, the economy remained unstable because the country was marked by continuous warfare between different factions of regional warlords. Beiyang's government in Beijing also experienced a constant change of leadership, and this political instability caused stagnation in economic development until the reunification of China in 1928 by the Kuomintang.
After the Kuomintang reunited the country in 1928, China entered a period of relative stability despite the ongoing military conflict and in the face of Japanese aggression in Shandong, finally Manchuria in 1931.
The 1930s in China are alternately known as the "Nanjing Decade", where economic growth is underway due to relative political stability compared to the previous decade. The Chinese industry grew rapidly from 1928 to 1931. While the economy was struck again by the Japanese occupation of Manchuria in 1931 and the Great Depression from 1931 to 1935, industrial output recovered to its previous peak in 1936. This is reflected in the trend in Chinese GDP.. In 1932, China's GDP peaked at 28.8 billion, before falling to 21.3 billion in 1934 and recovering to 23.7 billion in 1935. By 1930, foreign investment in China reached 3.5 billion, with Japan leading ( 1.4 billion) and the UK at 1 billion. In 1948, however, capital stocks had stopped with investment down to just 3 billion, with the United States and Britain leading the way.
However, the rural economy was hit hard by the Great Depression of the 1930s, where the overproduction of agricultural goods caused a massive fall in prices for China as well as increased foreign imports (because agricultural goods produced in western countries were "dumped" in China). In 1931, rice imports in China amounted to 21 million bushels compared with 12 million in 1928. Other items have even increased more surprisingly. In 1932, 15 million bushels of grains were imported compared to 900,000 in 1928. This increase in competition led to a massive reduction in China's (cheaper) farm prices and thus the income of rural farmers. In 1932, agricultural prices were 41 percent from 1921 levels. Rural incomes had fallen by 57 percent from 1931 levels in 1934 in some areas.
In 1937, Japan invaded China and the resulting warfare was a disaster for China. Most of the prosperous eastern Chinese beaches were occupied by the Japanese, who perpetrated various atrocities such as Nanjing Rape in 1937. In an anti-guerrilla sweep in 1942, Japan killed up to 200,000 civilians in a month. The war is thought to have killed between 20 and 25 million Chinese, and destroyed all that Chiang had built in the previous decade. Industrial developments are severely hampered after the war by devastating conflict and the flow of cheap American goods. In 1946, the Chinese industry operated at 20% capacity and had 25% of output from China before the war.
One of the effects of war is a major increase in government control over industry. In 1936, state-owned industries accounted for only 15% of GDP. However, the ROC government controls many industries for war. In 1938, the ROC formed a commission for industry and mining to control and oversee the company, and instilled price controls. In 1942, 70% of China's industrial capital was owned by the government.
After the war with Japan, Chiang gained Taiwan from Japan and renewed his struggle with the communists. However, KMT corruption, as well as hyperinflation as a result of trying to fight civil war, resulted in mass riots throughout the Republic and sympathy for communists. Moreover, the communists' pledge to redistribute the land earned them support among the large rural population. In 1949, the communists captured Beijing and then Nanjing as well. The People's Republic of China was proclaimed on October 1, 1949. The Republic of China moved to Taiwan where Japan had laid the foundation of education.
Military
The Army of the Republic of China is rooted in the National Revolutionary Army, founded by Sun Yat-sen in 1925 in Guangdong with the aim of reuniting China under the Kuomintang. Originally organized with Soviet aid as a means for the KMT to unite China against warlords, the National Revolutionary Army made a major battle in the Northern Expedition against the Chinese Beiyang Army warlords, in the Second China-Japan War against the Imperial Japanese Army, and in the Civil War against the Army Liberation of the People.
During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese Communist Party's armed forces were nominally incorporated into the National Revolutionary Army (while maintaining separate command), but broke away to form the People's Liberation Army shortly after the end of the war. With the entry into force of the Constitution of the Republic of China in 1947 and the official end of the KMT parties, the National Revolutionary Army was named after the Armed Forces of the Republic of China, with most of its troops forming the Chinese Republican Army, who retreated to Taiwan in 1949 after their defeat in the War Chinese Civil. Units that surrender and remain in mainland China are either disbanded or incorporated into the People's Liberation Army.
See also
- China's economic history (1912-49)
- Five Races Under One Union
- Sino-German Cooperation 1926-1941
- Sino-Soviet Relationship
- Three People Principles
References
Quote
Source
External links
- Travel Guide The Purpose of the Chinese Revolution of Wikivoyage
- Media related to the Republic of China (1912-1949) on Wikimedia Commons
Source of the article : Wikipedia
0 Comments