Colonialism

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Colonialism is the policy of a government that seeks to extend or maintain its authority over other persons or territories, generally with the aim of developing or exploiting it for the interests of colonizing countries and helping the colonial modernize the terms defined by the colonists, especially in economics, religion and health.

The colonial period of Europe was an era from the 15th century until 1914 when countries like Spain, Portugal, England, Russia, Sweden, France, Holland, Germany, Italy and Belgium formed colonies outside Europe. Philip T. Hoffman calculated that in 1914, the Europeans had occupied 84% of the world, and by 1800, before the Industrial Revolution had mastered, they had mastered at least 35% (excluding Antarctica). The typical European colonial system practically ended between 1945-1975, when almost all the European colonies gained political independence. Initially, European colonizing countries followed mercantilist policies, designed to strengthen the home economy at the expense of rivals, so the rule usually limited the colony to trade only with the first lady. In the mid-19th century, however, the powerful British Empire abandoned mercantilism and trade restrictions and adopted the principle of free trade, with little restriction or tariff. Christian missionaries are active in almost all European colonies. The 15th century also saw the emergence of the Western Asian Ottoman Empire which will continue to be the last occupier in Europe. The Asian colonization in Europe ended with the disappearance of Istanbul largely Turkish Europe in 1913. By the end of the 19th century Japan had become an active occupier. Several Russian and Spanish colonies were under the control of the United States in the same period.

Video Colonialism

Definition

The Collins English Language Dictionary defines colonialism as "the policy and practice of power in expanding control over the weaker people or territories". The Webster's encyclopedic dictionary defines colonialism as "the system or policy of a nation that seeks to extend or maintain its authority over other people or territories." The Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers four definitions, including "something typical of colonies" and "control by one force over a region or a dependent person."

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy uses the term 'colonialism' to describe the process of European settlement and political control over the whole world, including America, Australia, and parts of Africa and Asia ". It discusses the difference between colonialism and imperialism and states that "given the difficulty of consistently distinguishing between the two terms, this entry will use colonialism as a broad concept referring to the project of European political domination of the sixteenth and 20th centuries that ended with the national liberation movement of the year 1960s. "

In the preface to Jörsubster Osterhammel's Colonialism: A Theoretical Review, Roger Tignor says, "For Osterhammel, the essence of colonialism is the existence of colonies, which by definition are set differently from other areas such as the protectorate or the sphere of informal influence." In the book, Osterhammel asks, "How can 'colonialism' be defined independently of the 'colony?'" He sets the definition of three sentences:

Colonialism is the relationship between the indigenous majority (or forced imports) and the minority of foreign invaders. The fundamental decisions that affect the life of the colonized are created and carried out by colonial rulers in the pursuit of interests often defined in distant metropolises. Rejecting cultural compromise with occupied populations, the colonists are convinced of their own superiority and the mandate set for governing.

Maps Colonialism

Types of colonialism

Historians often distinguish between the various forms of overlapping colonialism:

• Settlers of colonialism involve large-scale immigration, often motivated by religious, political or economic reasons. It pursues to replace the native population.
• Colonization of exploitation involves fewer colonists and focuses on the exploitation of natural resources or the population as labor, usually for metropole purposes. This category includes trade posts as well as larger colonies where the colony will be part of the political and economic administration. Before the end of the slave trade and widespread abolition, when indigenous labor was not available, slaves were often imported to America, first by the Portuguese Empire, and later by Spain, the Netherlands, France and England.
• Replacing colonialism involved a settlement project supported by colonial power, where most settlers did not belong to the same ethnic group as the power of the ruler.
• Internal colonialism is the idea of ​​uneven structural strength between regions of a country. Source of exploitation comes from within the country.

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Socio-cultural evolution

When colonialism was often played in pre-populated areas, socio-cultural evolution included the formation of various populations of ethnic hybrids. Colonialism gave rise to a mixed population of cultures and ethnicities such as the American mestizo, as well as racially divided populations as found in French Algeria or in Southern Rhodesia. In fact, everywhere where colonial power builds a consistent and sustainable presence, the hybrid community exists.

Important examples in Asia include Anglo-Burmese, Anglo-Indian, Burgher, Eurasian, Filipino mestizo, Kristang and Macau. In the Indies (later Indonesia), most of the "Dutch" settlers were in fact Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans, formally including European law classes in colonies (see also Indos in pre-colonial history and Indos in colonial history).

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Other

"The Other" or "othering" is the process of creating a separate entity for a person or group labeled as distinct or abnormal because of the characteristic repetition. Others are the creation of people who distinguish, differentiate, label, categorize those who do not fit within the social norm. Some scholars in recent decades have developed "other" ideas as epistemological concepts in social theory. For example, postcolonial scholars, believing that colonial powers explain the "others" that exist there to dominate, civilize, and extract resources through soil colonization.

Political geographers explain how colonial/imperial (state, community, etc.) "other places" they want to dominate to legalize their exploitation of the land. During and after the rise of colonialism, Western powers regard the East as "the other", distinct and separate from their social norms. This viewpoint and cultural separation have divided Eastern and Western cultures that create dominant/subordinate dynamics, both of which become "others" to themselves.

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History

The so-called colonial activity has a long history beginning with the African pre-colonial empire that caused the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Greeks and Romans who all built colonies in ancient times. The word "metropole" comes from the Greek metropolis [Greek: "??????????"] - "the capital". The word "colony" comes from the Latin colonia - "the place for agriculture". Between the 11th and 18th centuries, the Vietnamese military colonies were established in the south of their native territories and absorbed the territory, in a process known as nam ti? N.

Modern colonialism begins with the Age of Discovery. Portugal and Spain (originally Crown of Castes) meet in Central and South America through sea travel and build trading posts or conquer lots of land. For some, this is a colony building in the oceans that distinguishes colonialism from other types of expansionism. These new lands were divided between the Portuguese and Spanish Empires (then still between Portugal and Castile - the Crown of Castile had a dynastic union but not a state with the Crown of Aragon through the Catholic Monarchy), first by the papal papes of Inter caetera and later by the treaty of Tordesillas and Zaragoza.

This period is also associated with the Commercial Revolution. The late Middle Ages saw reforms in accounting and banking in Italy and the eastern Mediterranean. These ideas were adopted and adapted in Western Europe with high risks and rewards associated with colonial efforts.

The 17th century saw the French colonial empire and the Dutch Empire, as well as Britain's foreign wealth, which later became the British Empire. It also saw the formation of Danish colonial empire and some Swedish overseas colonies.

The spread of the colonial kingdom diminished in the late 18th and early 19th centuries by the American Revolutionary War and the Latin American war of independence. However, many new colonies were established after this time, including the German colonial kingdom and the Belgian colonial empire. At the end of the 19th century, many European powers were involved in the struggle for Africa.

The Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire and the Austrian Empire existed at the same time as the empire above, but did not extend the oceans. Instead, this empire evolved through a more traditional route of conquest than neighboring territory. But there is some Russian colonization in America in the Bering Strait. The Japanese empire modeled itself on the European colonial empire. The United States gained the territory abroad after the Spanish-American War that became the term "American Empire" was created.

After the First World War, the winning allies divided the German colonial empire and many Ottoman Empires among themselves as the League of Nations mandates. These areas are divided into three classes based on how quickly they are considered ready for independence.

After World War II decolonization expanded rapidly. This is due to a number of reasons. First, Japan's victory in the Pacific War shows Indians, Chinese, and others that colonial power is invincible. Second, many colonial powers were significantly weakened by World War II.

Dozens of independence movements and global political solidarity projects such as the Non-Aligned Movement played an important role in the decolonization of former colonies. These include significant independence wars that occurred in Indonesia, Vietnam, Algeria, and Kenya. Finally, European forces - pressured by the United States and the Soviets - resigned to decolonization.

In 1962, the United Nations established a Special Committee for Decolonization, often called Committee 24, to encourage this process.

European empire in 1914

The main European empires consisted of the following colonies at the beginning of World War I (former colonies of the Spanish Empire independence before 1914 and unregistered; former colonies of other previously independent European empires, such as the former French colony of Haiti, were not registered).

The world's colonial population at the time of the First World War totaled about 560 million people, of which 70.0% were in the English domain, 10.0% in France, 8.6% in the Netherlands, 3.9% in Japan, 2.2% in Germany, 2.1% in the Americas, 1.6% in Portuguese, 1.2% in Belgian and 1/2 of 1% in Italian ownership. The colonial domain has a total population of about 370 million people.

In 1914, Europe migrated to colonies in the millions. Some are intended to remain in the colony as temporary settlers, especially as military or business personnel. Others go to the colony as immigrants. The UK population is the most migrated population to the colony: 2.5 million people live in Canada; 1.5 million in Australia; 750,000 in New Zealand; 450,000 in the South African Union; and 200,000 in India. French citizens also migrated in large numbers, mainly to the colonies in the northern African Maghreb region: 1.3 million settled in Algeria; 200,000 in Morocco; 100,000 in Tunisia; while only 20,000 migrate to French Indochina. Dutch and German colonies saw relatively rare European migration, as Dutch and German colonial expansion focused on commercial purposes rather than settlements. Portugal sent 150,000 settlers to Angola, 80,000 to Mozambique, and 20,000 to Goa. During the Spanish Empire, about 550,000 Spanish settlers migrated to Latin America.

Other non-European colonizing countries

Australian Protectorate

• Papua

New Zealand dependencies

• Cook Islands
• Niue

United States colonies and protectorates

• Alaska
• American Samoa
• Cuban (Platt Amendment turning Cuba into a protectorate)
• Guantánamo Bay
• Guam
• Hawaii
• Middle
• Nicaragua
• Palmyra Atoll
• Panama (The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty turns Panama into a protectorate)
• Panama Canal Zone
• Philippines
• Puerto Rico
• Sulu Sultanate
• The Swan Islands, Honduras
• Wake Island

Turkish Colony (Ottoman)

• Baghdad Vilayet
• Basra
• Edirne
• Ha'il
• Hijaz
• Lebanon
• Nejd
• Palestine
• Syria
• Yemen

Japanese colony

• Bonin Island
• Karafuto
• Korean
• The Kuril Islands
• Territory of Kwantung Rent Area
• Nanyo
  • The Caroline Islands
  • Marshall Islands
  • Northern Mariana Islands
• Penghu Islands
• Ryukyu Domain
• Taiwan
• Volcano Islands

Chinese colony

• Chinese Turkestan during the Qing dynasty

Argentine colony

• Monterey, California (1818)

Neocolonialism

The term neocolonialism has been used to refer to various contexts since the decolonization that occurred after World War II. In general this does not refer to the type of immediate colonization, but colonialism in another way. In particular, neocolonialism refers to the theory that previous or existing economic relations, such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the Central American Free Trade Agreement, created by former colonial powers have been or used to maintain control over their former colonies and dependence after the movement colonial independence period post World War II.

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The impact of colonialism and colonization

The impact of colonization is immense and pervasive. Various effects, both immediate and protracted, include the spread of deadly diseases, unequal social relations, exploitation, slavery, medical advancement, the creation of new institutions, abolitionism, infrastructure improvements, and technological progress. Colonial practices also spurred the spread of colonial languages, literature and cultural institutions, while endangering or eliminating indigenous peoples. Indigenous cultures of colonized peoples can also have a powerful influence on the imperial state.

Economy, commerce and trade

The economic expansion has accompanied the imperial expansion since ancient times. The Greek trading network spread throughout the Mediterranean region while Roman trade expanded with the primary aim of directing tribute from the colonized areas to the Roman metropole. According to Strabo, during Caesar Augustus, up to 120 Roman ships will sail each year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India. With the development of trade routes under the Ottoman Empire,

The people of Hindu Gujari, Muslim Syrians, Jews, Armenians, Christians from southern Europe and are operating trade routes that supply Persian and Arabian horses to soldiers from the three kingdoms, Mocha coffee to Delhi and Belgrade, Persian sutras to India and Istanbul.

Aztec civilization developed into a vast empire, like the Roman Empire, had the goal of demanding tribute from the conquered colonial realm. For the Aztecs, a significant reward is the sacrifice of victims sacrificed for their religious rituals.

On the other hand, European colonial empires sometimes attempt to channel, restrict and impede trade involving their colonies, channel activities through metropolis and appropriate taxes.

Despite the general trend of economic expansion, the economic performance of the former European colonies varies significantly. In "Institutions as the Fundamental Fundamental to Long-Term Growth," economists Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson and James A. Robinson compared the economic influence of European colonists to different colonies and studied what could explain the major differences in previous European colonies, for example, West African colonies such as Sierra Leone and Hong Kong and Singapore.

According to this paper, economic institutions are the determinants of colonial success because they determine financial performance and order for the distribution of resources. At the same time, these institutions are also a consequence of political institutions - especially how de facto and de jure political forces are allocated. To explain different colonial cases, we need to look into the political institutions that constitute the economic institutions.

For example, one interesting observation is the "Luck Reversal" - a less developed civilization in 1500, such as North America, Australia, and New Zealand, is now much richer than the countries that were once in a prosperous civilization in the year 1500 before the colonists came, like Mughal in India and the Incas in America. One explanation offered by this paper focuses on the political institutions of various colonies: it is unlikely for European colonists to introduce economic institutions where they can benefit quickly from resource extraction in the area. Therefore, given the more advanced civilization and the denser population, European colonists preferred to maintain the existing economic system rather than introducing an entirely new system; while in places with little to extract, the European colonists preferred to set up new economic institutions to protect their interests. Political institutions thus gave rise to various types of economic systems, which determined the performance of the colonial economy.

European colonization and development also changed the existing system of power throughout the world. In many pre-colonialist areas, women retain power, prestige, or authority through reproductive or agricultural control. For example, in certain parts of sub-Saharan African women retain farmland where they have the right to use. While men will make political and communal decisions for a community, women will control their village food supply or their family land. This allows women to achieve power and autonomy, even in patrilineal and patriarchal societies.

Through the rise of European colonialism came a huge push for the development and industrialization of most economic systems. However, while working to improve productivity, Europeans focus more on male workers. Foreign aid comes in the form of loans, land, credit, and tools to accelerate development, but is only allocated to men. In a more European way, women are expected to serve at a more domestic level. The result is a gender gap based on technology, economy, and class that extends over time.

Slavery and indentured servitude

European countries entered their imperial projects with the aim of enriching the European metropole. The exploitation of non-Europeans and other Europeans to support the aims of the kingdom is acceptable to the occupiers. Two of the results of this imperial agenda are slavery and slavery required. In the 17th century, nearly two-thirds of British settlers came to North America as contract workers.

European slave merchants carry large numbers of African slaves to America by sailing. Spain and Portugal had brought African slaves to work in African colonies such as Cape Verde and the Azores, and later Latin America, in the 16th century. The English, French, and Dutch joined in the slave trade in subsequent centuries. In the end, about 11 million Africans were brought to the Caribbean and North and South America as slaves by European colonizers.

Abolitionists in Europe and America protested against the inhuman treatment of African slaves, leading to the abolition of slave trade in the late 18th century. Labor shortages that resulted in the inspiration of European colonizers to develop new labor sources, employed indentured slave systems. The contract waiter approves the contract with the European invaders. Under their contract, the steward will work for an employer for a period of at least a year, while the employer agrees to pay the maid's voyage to the colony, perhaps paying to return to the home country, and paying the wage employees as well. The employees are "required" to the employer because they owe the employer back to their travel expenses to the colony, which they expect to pay through their wages. In practice, contract workers are exploited through terrible working conditions and burdensome debt created by employers, with whom the servants have no means of negotiating debts once they arrive at the colony.

India and China were the largest source of assistants required during the colonial era. Contract workers from India went to British colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean, as well as to French and Portuguese colonies, while Chinese servants traveled to British and Dutch colonies. Between 1830 and 1930, about 30 million migrant workers migrated from India, and 24 million returned to India. China sent more servant contracts to the European colony, and about the same proportion returned to China.

Following the struggle for Africa, the initial but secondary focus for most of the colonial regimes was the suppression of slavery and slave trade. At the end of the colonial period they were largely successful in this goal, although slavery was still very active in Africa and the world at large with much the same practice of de facto slavery despite the legislative ban.

Military innovation

The imperial expansion follows the military conquest in many ways. Therefore, the imperial army has a long history of military innovation to benefit the people's army they want to conquer. The Greeks developed a phalanx system, allowing their military units to present themselves to their enemies as walls, with soldiers using shields to protect each other during their progress on the battlefield. Under Philip II of Macedonia, they were able to organize thousands of soldiers into powerful combat troops, bringing together carefully trained infantry and cavalry troops. Alexander the Great exploited this military base even further during his conquest.

The Spanish Empire held a great advantage over Mesoamerican warriors through the use of stronger metal guns, especially iron, capable of destroying blades of ax used by Aztec and other civilizations. The development of European firearms using gunpowder strengthens their military advantage over the nation they want to subdue in America and elsewhere.

End of empire

The populations of some colonial territories, such as Canada, enjoy relative peace and prosperity as part of European powers, at least among the majority; however, minority populations such as the First Nations and French-Canadians experienced marginalization and hated colonial practice. The Francophone population of Quebec, for example, was very vocal in opposing conscription to military service to wage war on behalf of the British during World War I, which resulted in the crisis of the Conscription of 1917. Other European colonies had a much more severe conflict between European and local settlers. population. The rebellion broke out in the subsequent decades of the imperial era, such as India's Sepoy Rebellion.

The territorial borders imposed by European colonizers, especially in Central and South Asia, are opposed to the boundaries of indigenous peoples who previously had little interaction with one another. European colonists ignored genuine cultural and cultural hostility, imposing peace on people under their military control. Indigenous people are often relocated at the will of the colonial administrators. After independence from European control was reached, civil wars erupted in several former colonies, as indigenous people struggled to seize territory for their own ethnic, cultural or political groups. The separation of India, a civil war of 1947 that came after India's independence from Britain, became a conflict with 500,000 people dead. Fighting erupted between the Hindu, Sikh and Muslim communities as they fought for territorial domination. Muslims are fighting for an independent state to be partitioned where they will not become a religious minority, resulting in the creation of Pakistan.

Post-independence population movement

In the reversal of migration patterns experienced during the modern colonial era, post-independence migration followed the route back to the imperial state. In some cases, this is a movement of European settlers returning to their homeland, or to the birthplace of their ancestors. 900,000 French colonies (known as Pied-Noirs) resettled in France after Algeria's independence in 1962. A large number of these migrants are also Algerian descendants. 800,000 Portuguese migrated to Portugal after the independence of former colonies in Africa between 1974 and 1979; 300,000 Dutch settlers migrated to the Netherlands from the Indies after the Dutch military control over the colony ended.

After World War II 300,000 Dutchmen from the Indies, the majority of whom were Eurasian descendants called Indo Europe, were repatriated to the Netherlands. Large numbers then migrate to the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.

Global travel and migration generally grew at an accelerating pace throughout the era of European colonial expansion. Citizens of former colonies of European countries may have privileged status in some respects with regard to immigration rights when settled in the previous European imperial state. For example, the right to dual citizenship may be generous, or a larger quota of immigrants may be extended to the former colony.

In some cases, former European imperial states continue to foster close political and economic ties with former colonies. The Commonwealth of Nations is an organization that promotes cooperation between and among the UK and its former colonies, members of the Commonwealth. Similar organizations exist for former French colonies, Francophonie; The Portuguese Speaking Countries community plays a similar role to the former Portuguese colony, and the Dutch Union is equivalent to the former Dutch colony.

Migration from former colonies has proven problematic for European countries, where the majority population may express hostility towards ethnic minorities who immigrated from former colonies. Cultural and religious conflicts often erupt in France in recent decades, between immigrants from the Maghreb countries of northern Africa and the majority of the population of France. Nevertheless, immigration has changed the ethnic composition of France; in the 1980s, 25% of the total population of "Paris in" and 14% of the metropolitan area came from abroad, especially Algeria.

Diseases introduced

Meetings between explorers and populations around the world often introduce new diseases, which sometimes cause a remarkable local epidemic. For example, smallpox, measles, malaria, yellow fever, and others are unknown in pre-Columbian America.

The disease killed all indigenous people (Guanches) of the Canary Islands population in the 16th century. Half the native of Hispaniola in 1518 was killed by smallpox. Smallpox also destroyed Mexico in the 1520s, killing 150,000 people on Tenochtitlan alone, including the emperor, and Peru in the 1530s, assisting European conquerors. Measles kills two million more native Mexicans further in the 17th century. In 1618-1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Native American population of Massachusetts Bay. The plague of smallpox in 1780-1782 and 1837-1838 brought a drastic and drastic depopulation between Indian Plains. Some believe that the deaths of up to 95% of the Native American population in the New World are caused by Old World disease. For centuries, Europeans have developed a high level of immunity against these diseases, while indigenous peoples have no time to build such immunity.

Smallpox depleted indigenous Australians, killing about 50% of the native Australians in the early years of British colonial rule. It also killed many New Zealand M? Ori. By the end of 1848-49, as many as 40,000 of the 150,000 Hawaiians were thought to have died of measles, whooping cough, and influenza. Introduced the disease, especially smallpox, almost swept the natives of Easter Island. In 1875, measles killed more than 40,000 Fijians, about a third of the population. The Ainu population declined dramatically in the 19th century, largely because of the infectious disease brought by Japanese settlers who had come to Hokkaido.

Instead, researchers have hypothesized that syphilis precursors may have been brought from the New World to Europe after the Columbus voyage. The findings show that Europeans can bring home infertile tropical bacteria, where organisms may have mutated into more deadly forms in various conditions in Europe. The disease is more often fatal than it is now; Syphilis was the main killer in Europe during the Renaissance. The first cholera pandemic started in Bengal, then spread throughout India in 1820. Ten thousand British soldiers and many Indians died during this pandemic. Between 1736 and 1834 only about 10% of East India Company officers survived to take the last return journey. Waldemar Haffkine, who works mainly in India, who developed and used vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague in the 1890s, was considered the first microbiologist.

Against disease

In early 1803, the Kingdom of Spain organized a mission (Balmis expedition) to transport the smallpox vaccine to the Spanish colonies, and established a mass vaccination program there. In 1832, the United States federal government established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans. Under the direction of Mountstuart Elphinstone, a program was launched to spread smallpox vaccinations in India. From the beginning of the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became the driving force for all colonial powers. The epidemic of sleeping sickness in Africa is captured as field teams systematically check millions of people at risk. In the 20th century, the world saw the largest increase in the population in human history due to the reduced death rate in many countries due to medical advances. The world population has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to more than seven billion today.

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Colonialism and history of thought

Universalism

The conquest of the vast territory brings a great deal of cultural differences under the control of the imperial authority center. From the days of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, this fact was overcome by the imperialists who adopted the concept of universalism, and applied it to their imperial policy towards their subject far from the imperial capital. Capitol, metropole, is a source of policy that is clearly enlightened throughout the distant colonies.

The empire that grew out of the Greek conquest, especially by Alexander the Great, spurred the spread of Greek, religion, science, and philosophy throughout the colony. While most Greeks consider their own culture to be superior to all others (the barbarian word comes from a murmur heard into Greek ears like "bars"), Alexander is unique in promoting campaigns to win the hearts and minds of the Persians. He adopted the Persian customs of dress and instead encouraged his men to become indigenous by adopting local wives and learning their behavior. Noteworthy is that he radically departed from previous Greek attempts in colonization, characterized by the killing and enslavement of the local population and the settlement of the Greek from the policy.

Roman universalism is characterized by cultural and religious tolerance and a focus on civil efficiency and the rule of law. Roman law applied to Roman citizens and colonial people. Although Imperial Rome lacks public education, Latin speaks through its use in government and commerce. Roman law forbade local leaders to wage a war between them, who was in charge of Pax Romana for 200 years, during the longest period of peace in history. The Roman Empire was tolerant of diverse cultures and religious practices, even allowing them on several occasions to threaten Roman authority.

Colonialism and geography

Settlers act as a link between the native population and the imperial hegemony, thereby bridging the geographic, ideological and commercial gap between the occupier and the colonized. While the extent to which geography as an academic study engages in controversial colonialism, geographical tools such as cartography, shipbuilding, navigation, mining and agricultural productivity play a role in European colonial expansion. The consciousness of the colonists about the Earth's surface and the abundance of practical skills gives the invaders a knowledge that, in turn, creates power.

Anne Godlewska and Neil Smith argue that "the empire is" essentially a geographical project. "Historical geographical theories such as environmental determinism legitimize colonialism by proposing that some parts of the world are still underdeveloped, creating the idea of ​​evolution The geographers such as Ellen Churchill Semple and Ellsworth Huntington put forward the idea that the northern climate fosters morale and intelligence compared to that of the tropical climate (See The Tropics).This is a combination of environmental determinism and Social Darwinism in their approach.

Political geographers also argue that colonial behavior is reinforced by the physical mapping of the world, thus creating a visual separation between "them" and "us". Geographers primarily focus on the spaces of colonialism and imperialism; more specifically, the material allocation and symbolic space that allows colonialism.

Map plays a broad role in colonialism, as Bassett says "by providing geographical information in a convenient and standard format, cartographers help open West Africa to European conquest, commerce, and occupation." However, since the relationship between colonialism and geography was not scientifically objective, cartography was often manipulated during the colonial era. Norms and social values ​​have an effect on map creation. As long as the colonialist mapmakers use rhetoric in the formation of boundaries and in their art. Rhetoric likes the views of conquering Europeans; this is evident in the fact that any maps made by non-Europeans are instantly deemed inaccurate. Furthermore, European cartographers are required to follow a set of rules that lead to ethnocentrism; describes one's ethnicity in the center of the map. As Harley would say "The steps in making a map - selection, omission, simplification, classification, hierarchical creation, and 'symbolization' - are all inherently rhetorical."

A common practice by European cartographers at the time was to map unexplored areas as "empty space". This affects colonial power because it sparks competition between them to explore and colonize these areas. Imperialists aggressively and eagerly hope to fill these spaces for the glory of their respective countries. The Dictionary of Human Geography notes that cartography is used to empty the 'undiscovered lands' of their Native meanings and bring them into spatial existence through the imposition of "the names and boundaries of the West, [therefore] priming" virgins "(land which is supposedly empty, "wilderness") for colonization (thus making the colonial landscape a male penetration area), reconfiguring the foreign space as absolute, measurable and separable (as property). "

David Livingstone emphasizes "that geography has different meanings at different times and in different places" and that we should keep an open mind about the relationship between geography and colonialism rather than identifying limits. Geography as a discipline is not and is not an objective science, Painter and Jeffrey argue, but rather are based on assumptions about the physical world.

Colonialism and imperialism

The colony was part of the empire so that colonialism was closely related to imperialism. The assumption is that colonialism and imperialism can be exchanged, but Robert J. C. Young points out that imperialism is a temporary concept that colonialism is the practice. Colonialism is based on an imperial view, thus creating a consequential relationship. Through a kingdom, colonialism is established and capitalism is expanded, on the other hand capitalist economy naturally forces an empire. In the next section, Marxists propose a case for this mutually reinforcing relationship.

Marxist view of colonialism

Marxism views colonialism as a form of capitalism, imposing exploitation and social change. Marx thinks that working within the global capitalist system, colonialism is closely related to uneven development. It is "the instrument of wholesale destruction, systematic dependence and exploitation resulting in a distorted economy, social-psychological disorientation, great poverty and neo-colonial dependence". The colony was built into a production mode. The search for raw materials and the current search for new investment opportunities is the result of inter-capitalist competition for capital accumulation. Lenin regards colonialism as the root cause of imperialism, since imperialism is distinguished by the monopoly of capitalism through colonialism and as Lyal S. Sunga explains: "Vladimir Lenin advocated the principle of self-determination of society in his book" Theses on the Socialist Revolution and the Right to Self-Determination "as an integral part of the program of socialist internationalism" and he quotes Lenin who argues that "The right of a people to self-determination exclusively implies the right to freedom in the political sense, the right to free political separation from the oppressive state.In particular, the demand for this political democracy implies complete freedom to shock to secession and for a referendum on secession by a breakaway state. "Non-Russian marxists in the RSFSR and then the Soviet Union, such as Sultan Galiev and Vasyl Shakhrai, meanwhile, between 1918 and 1923 and then after 1929, regards the Soviet regime as a new version of Russian imperialism and colonialism.

In his critique of colonialism in Africa, the historian Guyana and political activist Walter Rodney stated:

"The persistence of the short period of colonialism and its negative consequences for Africa arises mainly from the fact that Africa is losing power.Power is the primary determinant in human society, becoming the basis for relationships in any group and between This means the ability to defend one's interests and if necessary impose the will of a person in any way available... When a society finds itself compelled to relinquish power completely to another society which in itself is a form of backwardness... Over the centuries of pre-colonial trade, some control over life socio-political and economic sustainability in Africa, regardless of the adverse trade with the Europeans. Small control over internal problems disappears under colonialism. Colonialism goes farther than trade. This implies a tendency toward direct appropriation by Europeans from social institutions in Africa. Africans no longer set the goals and standards of indigenous culture, and lose the full command of training young members of the community. It is undoubtedly a major step back... Colonialism is not just a system of exploitation, but whose primary purpose is to repatriate profits to so-called 'first ladies'. From an African point of view, it is equal to the surplus expatriates generated by African labor from African resources. That means the development of Europe as part of the same dialectical process in which Africa is backward.

"The colonial Africa falls within the part of the international capitalist economy from which the surplus is drawn to feed the metropolitan sector.As seen before, the exploitation of land and labor is essential to human social progress, but only by assuming that the product is available in the area where the exploitation is taking place. "

According to Lenin, the new imperialism emphasizes the transition of capitalism from free trade to the monopoly stage of capitalism to finance capital. He states it, "connected with the intensification of the struggle for the partition of the world". When free trade thrives on commodity exports, monopoly capitalism thrives on capital exports that are collected by profits from banks and industries. This, for Lenin, is the highest stage of capitalism. He goes on to argue that this form of capitalism is destined for war between capitalist and exploited countries with which it must have previously lost. War is expressed as a consequence of imperialism. As a continuation of this thought G. N. Uzoigwe states, "But it is now clear from a more serious investigation of the history of Africa in this period that imperialism is essentially an economy in its fundamental impulse."

Liberalism, capitalism and colonialism

The classical liberals are generally in the abstract opposition to colonialism and imperialism, including Adam Smith, Frà © dà © ric Bastiat, Richard Cobden, John Bright, Henry Richard, Herbert Spencer, Fox Fox Bourne, Edward Morel, Josephine Butler, WJ Fox and William Ewart Gladstone. Their philosophy found the colonial enterprise, especially mercantilism, against the principles of free trade and liberal policy. Adam Smith writes in The Wealth of Nations that Britain should grant independence to all its colonies and also argues that it would be economically beneficial to the average British, even though merchants have the right to mercantilize lose.

Scientific thinking in colonialism, race and gender

During the colonial era, the global process of colonization served to disseminate and synthesize the social and political belief systems of "mother-state" which often included a belief in the superiority of the race's natural race. Colonialism also acts to strengthen this same racial belief system within the "parent countries" itself. Usually also included in the colonial belief system is a certain belief in the superiority inherent in men over women, but this particular belief has often existed among pre-colonial societies, before their colonization.

Popular political practices of the period reinforced the colonial government by legitimizing European (and/or Japanese) male authorities, and also legitimizing the inferiority of the races of women and non-motherland through studies of Craniology, Comparative Anatomy, and Phenology. Biologists, naturalists, anthropologists, and ethnologists of the 19th century focused on the study of colonized indigenous women, as in the case of Georges Cuvier's study of Sarah Baartman. Such cases embrace a natural relation of superiority and inferiority between races based on the observations of naturalist from mother-state. European studies along these lines give rise to the perception that African women's anatomy, and especially genitalia, are similar to mandates, baboons, and monkeys, thus distinguishing colonized Africans from what are seen as evolutionary superior traits, and thus entitled authoritarian, European Women.

In addition to what will now be regarded as a pseudo-scientific study of race, which tends to reinforce belief in the inherent mother-racial superiority, new science-based ideologies suspected to be related to gender roles also later emerged in addition to the general body of inherent superiority beliefs of colonial era. The inferiority of women in all cultures emerges as an idea supposedly supported by craniology that leads scientists to argue that the typical female brain size is female, on average, slightly smaller than that of men, thus concluding that women therefore should be less developed and less evolutionary forward than men. The discovery of the relative size difference of the skull was then attributed only to differences in the general general size of the human male body versus the human body in general.

In former European colonies, non-Europeans and women sometimes faced invasive studies by colonial forces in the interests of pro-colonial ideology that prevailed at the time. Such seemingly similar racial and gender studies coincide with the era of colonialism and early recognition of foreign cultural, appearance, and gender roles into the world view of the intellectuals of the now widespread parent countries.

Post colonialism

Pascakolonialisme (or post-colonial theory) can refer to a series of theories in philosophy and literature that grapple with the legacy of colonial rule. In this sense, postcolonial literature can be regarded as a postmodern branch of literature concerned with the political and cultural independence of a society previously conquered in the colonial kingdom. Many practitioners took Edward SaÃÆ'¯d Orientalism (1978) as a theoretical work (although French theorists such as Aimà © Ã… © cà © sà © saire and Frantz Fanon made the same claim several decades before SaÃÆ'd).

SaÃÆ'¯d analyzed the works of Balzac, Baudelaire, and LautrÃÆ' Â © amont stating that they helped shape the public fantasy of the superiority of the European race. Post-colonial fiction writers interacted with traditional colonial discourse, but modified or subverted it; for example by retelling the familiar story from the perspective of the oppressed minor character in the story. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's Can Subaltern Speak? (1998) gives his name to Subaltern Studies.

In Postcolonial Criticism (1999) Spivak argues that the major works of European metaphysics (such as Kant and Hegel) not only tend to exclude the subaltern from their discussion but actively prevent the Europeans from occupying positions as human subject completely. Hegel's Phenomenology of the Spirit (1807), famous for his explicit ethnocentrism, considers Western civilization the most successful, while Kant also has some traces of racism in his work.

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Colonial migration

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