Saudi Arabia ( Ã, ( listen ) , Ã, ( listen ) ), officially Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ( KSA ), is a sovereign Arab country in West Asia which is the largest part of the Arabian Peninsula. With a land area of ​​approximately 2,150,000 km 2 (830,000 sq. N, mi), Saudi Arabia is geographically the fifth largest country in Asia and the second largest state in the Arab world after Algeria. Saudi Arabia borders Jordan and Iraq to the north, Kuwait to the northeast, Qatar, Bahrain and United Arab Emirates in the east, Oman to the southeast and Yemen to the south. It is separated from Israel and Egypt by the Gulf of Aqaba. It is the only country with both Red Sea coast and Persian Gulf coast and most of its area consists of arid deserts and mountains.
Modern areas of Saudi Arabia were formerly four different regions: Hejaz, Najd and parts of Eastern Arabia (Al-Ahsa) and South Arabia ('Asir). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by Ibn Saud. He united four territories into one state through a series of conquests that began in 1902 with the arrest of Riyadh, his ancestral home, House of Saud. Since then Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy, effectively dictating hereditary dictatorship arranged along the Islamic line. The ultimate conservative Wahhabi religious movement in Sunni Islam has been called "the dominant feature of Saudi culture", with its global spread largely funded by oil and gas trade. Saudi Arabia is sometimes referred to as the "Land of Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca) and Al-Masjid an-Nabawi (in Medina), two sanctuaries in Islam. The country has a total population of 28.7 million, of which 20 million are Saudi citizens and 8 million are foreigners. The official language of the country is Arabic.
Oil was discovered on March 3, 1938 and was followed up by several other findings in the Eastern Province. Saudi Arabia has since become the world's largest oil producer and exporter, controlling the world's second largest oil reserves and sixth largest gas reserves. The Kingdom is categorized as the World Bank's high-income economy with a high Human Development Index and is the only Arab country that is part of the G-20's main economy. However, the economy of Saudi Arabia is the least diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, having no significant service or production sector (apart from resource extraction). The state has drawn criticism for its treatment of women and the use of capital punishment. Saudi Arabia is a monarchical autocracy, has the fourth highest military spending in the world and SIPRI discovers that Saudi Arabia is the second largest arms importer in the world in 2010-2014. Saudi Arabia is considered a regional and intermediate power. In addition to GCC, he is an active member of the Organization for Islamic Cooperation and OPEC.
Video Saudi Arabia
Etimologi
After the unification of the kingdoms of Hijaz and Nejd, the new nation was named al-Mamlakah al-Arab - well as-Su ?? d? Well (transliteration of ??????? ??????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????? Although This is usually translated as "Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" in English, literally meaning "Saudi Arabian kingdom", or "Kingdom of Saudi Arabia".
The word "Saudi" comes from the element as-Su ?? d? Well in the Arabic language of the country, which is a kind of adjective known as nisba, formed from the name of the Saudi royal family dynasty, Al Saud (????). His participation reveals the view that the state is a private property of the royal family. Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by adding the word Al , which means "family" or "Home", for the personal name of the ancestors. In the case of Al Saud, this is the father of the founder of the 18th century dynasty, Muhammad bin Saud.
Maps Saudi Arabia
History
There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 125,000 years ago. It is now believed that the first modern humans who spread eastward in Asia left Africa some 75,000 years ago in Bab-el-Mandeb linking the Horn of Africa and Arabia.
Before the founding of Saudi Arabia
In ancient times, the Arabian Peninsula served as a trade corridor and exhibited several civilizations. History before the Saudi Arabian foundation is divided into two phases: pre-Islamic and after Islam.
Arab pre-Islam
The religions of people from the Arabian peninsula before Islam consisted of indigenous polytheistic beliefs, Arabian Christianity, Nestorian Christianity, Judaism and Zoroastrianism.
Al-Magar Civilizations
Al-Magar is a prehistoric civilization whose epicenter lies in modern southwestern Najd. Al-Magar is characterized as one of the first civilizations in the world where animal domestication is widespread, especially horses, during the Neolithic period. Apart from horse animals such as sheep, goats, dogs, especially the Saluki races, ostriches, hawks and fish are found in the form of stone sculptures and stone carvings. The radiocarbon dating of these and other objects is found to be approximately 9,000 years old. The findings reflect the significance of this site as an important ancient civilization and gave it significant prehistoric importance with sufficient evidence and detailed data to rewrite Neolithic history of the Arabian Peninsula and Saudi Arabia in particular. Al-Magar also revealed additional information about the relationship between human economic activity and climate change inherent, how hunter-gatherer societies become inactive, how they harness the natural resources available to them, and how they drive the domestication of plants and animals..
In November 2017, a hunting scene showing the most probable pet image, resembling a Canaanite dog, wearing a leash is found in Shuwaymis, a hilly area in northwestern Saudi Arabia. These stone carvings date back more than 8000 years, making them the earliest dog depictions in the world.
Dilmun Civilization
Dilmun is one of the most ancient civilizations in the Middle East and in the world. It was a major trading center, and, at the height of its power, controlled the Persian Gulf trade route. Dilmun covers the vast eastern side of the Arabian Peninsula, especially in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. One of the earliest inscriptions that mentions Dilmun is that the Ur-Nanshe King of Lagash (circa 2300 BC) was found in a socket: "Dilmun's ships gave him wood as a tribute from a foreign land.
Thamud Civilizations
Thamud is the name of the ancient civilization in Hijaz known from the first millennium BC to the time of Muhammad. More than 9,000 Thamudic inscriptions are recorded in south-western Saudi Arabia.
Nabatean Kingdom
Nabataeans , also Nabateans ( ; Arabic: ??????? ? al-? Anb ?? , compare with Ancient Greece: ????????? , Latin: NabatÃÆ'Â|us ), are the Arabs who inhabit northern Arabia and the Southern Levant, and whose settlements, most striking is the assumed Raqmu capital, now called Petra, at CE 37Ã, - c. 100, named Nabatene to the border between Arabia and Syria, from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. Their loosely controlled trading network, centered on a chain of oases they control, where agriculture is intensively practiced in restricted areas, and in the pathway that links them, has no safely determined boundaries in the surrounding desert. Trajan conquered the Nabataean kingdom, annexed it to the Roman Empire, where their individual culture, easily identified by their peculiarly painted pots, was adopted into the larger Greco-Roman culture. They were later converted to Christianity. Jane Taylor, a writer, describes them as "one of the most talented people in the ancient world".
Lihyan Kingdom
The Kingdom of Lihyan (Arabic: ?????) or Dedan is an Ancient Northern Arabian kingdom. It lies to the north-west of Saudi Arabia now, and is known for its ancient Arab North inscription dating ca. 6th century to 4th BC.
Kindah Kingdom
Kindah is a tribal kingdom founded in Najd in central Arabia. Their kings exercise influence over a number of related tribes more by personal prestige than by coercive settlements. Their first capital is Qaryat Dh? T K? Hil, today known as Qaryat al-F? W.
Medieval and Islamic resurgence
Shortly before the advent of Islam, apart from urban trading settlements (such as Mecca and Medina), much of what became Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic pastoral tribal communities. The Prophet of Islam Muhammad, however, was born in Mecca around the year 571. In the early seventh century, Muhammad united various tribes on the peninsula and created an Islamic religious government. After his death in 632, his followers quickly expanded the territory under Muslim rule outside Arabia, conquering the vast and unprecedented territory (from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to modern Pakistan in the east) in decades. Arabia soon became a more political area in the Muslim world as its focus shifted to the vast and recently conquered lands.
The Arab dynasty, originally from modern Saudi Arabia, particularly Hejaz, founded Rashidun (632-661), Umayyad (661-750), Abbasid (750-1517) and Fatimid caliph (909-1171).
From the 10th century to the beginning of the 20th century, Mecca and Medina were under the control of local Arab rulers known as Sharif Mecca, but most of the time Sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the main Islamic empires based in Baghdad, Cairo or Istanbul. Most of what remains of Saudi Arabia is returned to traditional tribal rules.
For much of the 10th century, the Qarmati Isma'ili-Shiites were the most powerful forces in the Persian Gulf. In 930, the Qarmatians looted Mecca, hostile to the Muslim world, especially with their Black Stone thefts. In 1077-1078, an Arab Sheikh named Abdullah ibn Ali Al Uyuni defeated the Qarmatians in Bahrain and Al-Hasa with the help of the Great Kings of Saljuk and established the Uyunid dynasty. The Uyunid Emirate then expanded with its territory stretching from Najd to the Syrian desert. They were overthrown by the Usamids in 1253. The Ufsurid government was weakened after the Persian rulers of Hormuz seized Bahrain and Qatif in 1320. The followers of Ormuz, the Jarwani Shia dynasty came to rule in eastern Arabia in the 14th century. The Jabrid took over the territory after overthrowing the Jarwanids in the 15th century and clashed with Hormuz for more than 2 decades over the region for his economic income, until finally agreeing to pay tribute in 1507. The Al-Muntafiq tribe then took over the territory and was at under Ottoman rule. The Banu Khalid tribe then rebelled against them in the 17th century and took power. Their government extended from Iraq to Oman at its peak and they were also under Ottoman rule.
Ottoman Hejaz
In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf coast (Hijaz, Asir and Al-Ahsa) to the Empire and claimed sovereignty over the interior. One reason is to thwart the Portuguese attempts to invade the Red Sea (therefore Hijaz) and the Indian Ocean. The level of Ottoman control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with fluctuating forces or weaknesses of the imperial center authority.
The foundations of the Saud dynasty
The emergence of what became a Saudi royal family, known as Al Saud, began in Najd in central Arabia in 1744, when Muhammad bin Saud, the founder of the dynasty, joined the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the founder of the Wahhabi movement, a puritan form of Sunni Islam which is strict. The alliance formed in the 18th century provided an ideological boost to Saudi expansion and remained the basis of Saudi Arabia's current dynastic rule.
The first "Saudi State" established in 1744 in the area around Riyadh, quickly expanding and briefly mastering most of Saudi Arabia today, fired Karbala in 1802 and captured Mecca in 1803, but was destroyed in 1818 by Ottoman youth king. Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha. A much smaller "Saudi State", mainly located in Nejd, was founded in 1824. During the 19th century, Al Saud overtook control of what would be Saudi Arabia with other Arab ruling families, Al Rashid. In 1891, Al Rashid won and Al Saud was desperate to Kuwait.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have power over most of the peninsula. Subject to this sovereignty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers, with the Sharif of Mecca possessing superiority and ruling Hijaz. In 1902, Abdul Rahman's son, Abdul Aziz - later known as Ibn Saud - reclaimed the power of Riyadh by bringing Al Saud back to Najd. Ibn Saud gained support from the Ikhwan, a Wahhabist-inspired tribal army and led by Faisal Al-Dawish, and who had grown rapidly after it was founded in 1912. With the help of the Brotherhood, Ibn Saud captured Al-Ahsa of the Ottomans in 1913.
In 1916, with British encouragement and support (which fought the Ottomans in World War I), Sharif Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab uprising against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state. Although the Arab Revolution of 1916-1918 failed in its goal, the Allied victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman rule and control in Arabia.
Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolution, and continued his struggle with Al Rashid. After the last last defeat, he took the title of Sultan Najd in 1921. With the help of the Ikhwan, Hijaz was conquered in 1924-25 and on 10 January 1926 Ibn Saud declared himself King of Hijaz. A year later, he added the title of King Najd. Over the next five years, he arranges two parts of the dual kingdom as a separate unit.
After the conquest of Hijaz, the Ikhwan leadership objectives switched to the expansion of Wahabi territory to British protectorates in Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began to rob the territories. It met Ibn Saud's opposition, because he recognized the danger of direct conflict with Britain. At the same time, the Brotherhood became disillusioned with Ibn Saud's domestic policies that appeared to support modernization and an increasing number of non-Muslim foreigners in the country. As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two-year struggle, were defeated in 1929 at the Battle of Sabilla, where their leaders were massacred. In 1932, the two kingdoms in the Hijaz and Nejd were unified as Kingdom of Saudi Arabia .
Post-unification
The new kingdom relies on limited agricultural income and pilgrimage. In 1938, large oil deposits were found in Al-Ahsa area along the Persian Gulf coast, and the full-scale development of oil fields began in 1941 under US-controlled Aramco (American Arab Oil Company). Oil gives Saudi Arabia economic prosperity and a large political influence internationally.
Cultural life is growing rapidly, especially in Hijaz, which is the center for newspapers and radio. However, the huge influx of foreign workers in Saudi Arabia in the oil industry has increased the pre-existing tendency for xenophobia. At the same time, the government becomes more wasteful and wasteful. In the 1950s it has led to a huge government deficit and excessive overseas loans.
In 1953, Saud of Saudi Arabia succeeded as king of Saudi Arabia, for the death of his father, until 1964 when he was deposed in favor of his half-brother Faisal of Saudi Arabia, after fierce competition, fueled by doubts in the royal family over Saud Competence. In 1972, Saudi Arabia gained 20% control in Aramco, thereby reducing US control over Saudi oil.
In 1973, Saudi Arabia led an oil boycott of Western nations supporting Israel in the Yom Kippur War against Egypt and Syria. Oil prices have quadrupled. In 1975, Faisal was killed by his nephew, Prince Faisal bin Musaid and succeeded by his half-brother, King Khalid.
By 1976, Saudi Arabia had become the world's largest oil producer. The Khalid government saw the progress of economic and social development at a very rapid rate, altering the country's infrastructure and education system; in foreign policy, close ties with the US are developed. In 1979, two events occurred that were very concerned about the government, and had long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policies. The first is the Islamic Revolution of Iran. It is feared that the Shia minority group in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oilfield) may rebel under the influence of their Iranian counterparts. There have been several anti-government uprisings in the region such as the 1979 Qatif Rebellion.
The second incident was the Grand Mosque Seizure in Mecca by Islamic extremists. The militants involved are angry at what they perceive as corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi government. Government regains control of the mosque after 10 days and those arrested are executed. Part of the royal family's response is to uphold the stricter adherence of traditional religious and social norms in the country (eg, cinema closure) and to give Ulama greater role in government. Not entirely successful because Islamism continues to grow in strength.
In 1980, Saudi Arabia bought American interests in Aramco.
King Khalid died of a heart attack in June 1982. He was succeeded by his brother King Fahd, who added the title of "Keeper of Two Holy Mosques" in his name in 1986 in response to the great fundamentalist pressure to avoid the use of "grandeur". "in connection with anything but God.Fahd continues to develop close ties with the United States and increase purchases of American and British military equipment.
The huge wealth generated by oil revenues began to have a greater impact on Saudi society. This leads to the rapid modernization of technology (but not culture), urbanization, mass public education and the creation of new media. This and the growing presence of more foreign workers greatly influences Saudi traditional norms and values. Despite dramatic changes in the social and economic life of the country, political forces continue to be monopolized by the royal family which causes discontent among many Saudis who are beginning to seek broader participation in government.
In the 1980s, Saudi Arabia spent $ 25 billion to support Saddam Hussein in the Iran-Iraq War. However, Saudi Arabia condemned Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and called on the US to intervene. King Fahd allows American troops and coalition forces to be deployed in Saudi Arabia. He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of his citizens to live in Saudi Arabia, but expelled Yemenis and Jordanians for their government's support of Iraq. In 1991, Saudi forces were implicated in the bombing attacks in Iraq and in the ground invasion that helped liberate Kuwait.
Saudi Arabia's relations with the West began to cause concern among some scholars and students of sharia law and is one of the problems that led to increased Islamic terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamic terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi citizens. Osama bin Laden was a Saudi national (until stripped of his citizenship in 1994) and was responsible for the 1998 bombing of the US embassy in East Africa and the 2000 USS Cole bombing near the Aden port of Yemen. 15 of the 19 terrorists involved in the September 11 attacks in New York City, Washington, D.C., and near Shanksville, Pennsylvania are Saudi nationals. Many Saudis who do not support Islamic terrorists remain very unhappy with government policy.
Islamism is not the only source of hostility towards the government. Although now very wealthy, Saudi Arabia's economy is almost stagnant. High taxes and unemployment growth have contributed to dissatisfaction, and has been reflected in the rise of civil unrest, and dissatisfaction with the royal family. In response, a limited number of "reforms" were initiated by King Fahd. In March 1992, he introduced the "Basic Law", which emphasized the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December 1993, the Consultative Council was inaugurated. It consists of a chairman and 60 members - all chosen by the King. The King's intention is to respond to differences of opinion while making as little change as possible in the status quo. Fahd asserts that he has no democracy in mind: "A system based on elections is inconsistent with our Islamic beliefs, which [approve] the government through consultation [sh? R?]."
In 1995, Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke, and the Crown Prince, Abdullah, took over the role of the bupati, taking over the country's daily duties. However, his authority was hindered by the conflict with Fahd's brothers (known, with Fahd, as "Sudairi Seven"). From the 1990s, signs of dissatisfaction continued and included, in 2003 and 2004, a series of armed bombings and violence in Riyadh, Jeddah, Yanbu and Khobar. In February-April 2005, the first national city election was held in Saudi Arabia. Women are not allowed to take part in the polls.
In 2005, King Fahd died and was replaced by Abdullah, who continued his minimum reform policy and oversaw the protests. The King introduced a number of economic reforms aimed at reducing the country's dependence on oil revenues: limited deregulation, foreign investment encouragement, and privatization. In February 2009, Abdullah announced a series of government changes to the judiciary, the armed forces and various ministries to modernize these institutions including the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary and Mutaween (religious police) with more moderate individuals and the appointment of the first female deputy minister in that country.
On January 29, 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in the city of Jeddah in a rare criticism of poor urban infrastructure after deadly floods swept through the city, killing eleven people. Police stopped the demonstration after about 15 minutes and arrested 30 to 50 people.
Since 2011, Saudi Arabia has been influenced by their own Spring Arabic protests. In response, King Abdullah announced on 22 February 2011 a series of benefits for citizens of $ 36 billion, of which $ 10.7 billion was allocated for housing. No political reform was announced as part of the package, although some prisoners charged for financial crimes were pardoned. On March 18 of the same year, King Abdullah announced a $ 93 billion package, including 500,000 new homes at a cost of $ 67 billion, in addition to creating 60,000 new security jobs.
Although male-only municipal elections were held on 29 September 2011, Abdullah allowed women to vote and be elected in 2015 city elections, and also to be nominated to the Shura Council.
Politics
Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy. However, according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by a royal decree in 1992, the king had to comply with Sharia (Islamic law) and the Qur'an, while the Qur'an and Sunnah (Muhammad's traditions) were declared as state constitutions. No political parties or national elections are allowed. Critics consider it an authoritarian dictatorship. The Economist sees the Saudi government as the fifth most authoritarian government of 167 rated in the 2012 Democracy Index, and Freedom House gives it the lowest "No Free" rating, 7.0 ("1 = best, 7 = worst") for 2013.
In the absence of national elections and political parties, politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society. Outside Al-Saud, participation in the political process was limited to a relatively small segment of the population and took the form of royal family consultation with scholars, tribal sheikhs and important commercial family members on major decisions. This process is not reported by Saudi media.
Traditionally, all men of full age have the right to petition the king directly through a traditional tribal meeting known as the majlis . In many ways the approach to government is slightly different from the traditional system of tribal government. The tribal identity remains strong and, outside of the royal family, political influence is often determined by tribal affiliations, with tribal sheikhs maintaining a considerable degree of influence over local and national events. As mentioned earlier, in recent years there have been limited measures to expand political participation such as the establishment of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003.
Al Saud's administration faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamic activism; liberal critics; Shi'ite minorities - particularly in the Eastern Province; and certain old and regionalist opponents (eg in Hijaz). Of these, Islamic activists have been the greatest threat to the government and in recent years have carried out a number of acts of violence or terrorism in the country. However, open protests against the government, even if peaceful, are not tolerated.
Monarchy and royal family
The King incorporates legislative, executive, and judicial functions and government decisions form the basis of national law. The king was also the prime minister, and led the Saudi Arabian Council of Ministers and the Saudi Arabian Consultative Assembly.
The royal family dominates the political system. The enormous number of families allowed him to control most of the important posts of the kingdom and to have engagement and attendance at all levels of government. The number of princes is estimated at least 7,000, with most of the powers and influences held by 200 or more men of Ibn Saud's descendants. The main ministries are generally reserved for the royal family, as do the thirteen governor regions.
Political appointments and long-term governments have resulted in the creation of "royal power" for senior prince, such as King Abdullah, who has been National Guard Commander since 1963 (until 2010, when he appointed his son to replace him), former Crown Prince, from 1962 to his death in 2011, the former Prince Nayef crown prince of the Interior from 1975 until his death in 2012, Prince Saud who has been Minister of Foreign Affairs since 1975 and King Salman at present, who is the Minister of Defense and Flight before he became crown prince and Governor of Riyadh Province from 1962 to 2011. The current Defense Minister is Prince Mohammad bin Salman, son of King Salman and Crown Prince.
The royal family is politically divided by factions based on clan loyalty, personal ambition and ideological differences. The most powerful clan faction known as 'Sudairi Seven', consists of the late King Fahd and his brothers and his descendants. Ideological divisions cover issues of speed and direction of reform, and whether the role of the 'ulama should be increased or reduced. There is a division within the family of who should succeed the throne after the accession or death of the Prince of Sultan. When the Sultan's prince died before ascending the throne on October 21, 2011, King Abdullah appointed Prince Nayef as the crown prince. The following year Prince Nayef also died before boarding the throne.
Saudi governments and royal families often, for years, are accused of corruption. In a country which is said to be "owned" by the royal family and named for them, the line between state assets and personal wealth of a senior prince is blurred. The degree of corruption has been described as systemic and endemic, and its existence is acknowledged and defended by Prince Bandar bin Sultan (senior member of the royal family) in an interview in 2001.
Although allegations of corruption are often limited to large unsampled allegations, a special allegation was made in 2007, when it claimed that British defense contractor BAE Systems had paid Prince Prince US $ 2 billion in bribes related to Al-Yamamah's weapons deal. Prince Bandar denied the allegations. Investigations by US and British authorities resulted in 2010, in a bargaining agreement with the company, by which he paid a $ 447 million fine but did not recognize a bribe.
International Transparency in Corruption Perceptions Index for 2010 gives Saudi Arabia a score of 4.7 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "very corrupt" and 10 "very clean"). Saudi Arabia has undergone a process of political and social reform, such as to improve public transparency and good governance. However, nepotism and patronage are widespread when doing business in the country. The enforcement of anti-corruption laws is selective and public officials engage in corruption without impunity. A number of prominent Saudi Arabian princes, government ministers, and businessmen, including Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal, were arrested in Saudi Arabia in November 2017.
There was mounting pressure to reform and modernize the rule of the royal family, an agenda King Abdullah championed both before and after his accession in 2005. The creation of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s did not meet the demands for political participation, and, in 2003, the Dialogue Forum The annual national is announced which will allow elected professionals and intellectuals to openly debate current national issues, within certain specified parameters. In 2005, the first city elections were held. In 2007, the Loyalty Council was created to regulate succession. In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and first women to ministerial posts. However, this change has been criticized for being too slow or just cosmetic. Al ash-Sheikh and clerical role
Saudi Arabia is almost unique in giving scholars (body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) a direct role in government. The preferred scholar is from the Salafi persuasion. The scholars have also been a key influence in major government decisions, such as the imposition of an oil embargo in 1973 and invitations to foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990. In addition, they have a major role in the judicial and educational system. and monopoly of authority in the field of religious and social morals.
In the 1970s, as a result of the oil wealth and modernization of the country initiated by King Faisal, significant changes to the Saudis were ongoing and the power of the ulama decreased. However, this changed after the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979 by Islamic radicals. The government's response to the crisis included strengthening the clerical power and increasing their financial support: in particular, they were given greater control over the education system and made it possible to uphold the stricter adherence of Wahhabi rules about moral and social behavior. After the accession to the throne in 2005, King Abdullah took steps to reduce the strength of the cleric, for example transferring control over the education of girls to the Ministry of Education.
The scholars have historically been led by Al-ash-Sheikh, the country's leading religious family. Al-ash-Sheikh is a descendant of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the founder of the 18th century of the Sunni Wahhabi form of Islam that is currently dominant in Saudi Arabia. The family was the second in prestige only to Al Saud (royal family) with whom they formed "mutual support pacts" and power-sharing arrangements nearly 300 years ago. The pact, which continues to this day, is based on Al Saud who defends Al-Sheikh's authority on religious matters and upholds and disseminates Wahhabi doctrine. In return, Al ash-Sheikh supports Al Saud's political authority thus using religious moral authority to legitimize the rule of the royal family. Although Al-Sheikh's dominance of scholars has diminished in recent decades, they still hold the most important religious positions and are closely related to Al Saud by high-level marriage.
Legal system
The main source of the law is Shariah Islam which comes from the teachings of the Qur'an and Sunnah (tradition of the Prophet). Saudi Arabia is unique among modern Muslim countries that Shari'a is not codified and there is no legal precedent system, giving power judges to use independent legal reasoning to make decisions. Saudi judges tend to follow the principles of the Hanbali School (or fiqh ) found in pre-modern texts and recorded for their literalist interpretations of the Qur'an and hadith.
Because judges are empowered to disregard previous assessments (either their own judgments or other judges) and can apply their personal interpretations of Sharia in certain cases, different judgments appear even in seemingly identical cases, making it difficult to predict legal interpretation. The Shariah court system is the basic judiciary of Saudi Arabia and its judges (qadis) and lawyers are part of the ulema, the Islamic scholars of the country.
Government decisions are another major source of law; but referred to as rules rather than legal because they are lower than Shariah. Government decisions add sharia in areas such as labor law, commercial and corporate law. In addition, traditional tribal law and customs remain significant. Extra-Shariah government courts usually deal with disputes related to certain government decisions. The last petition from the Shari'a court and the government court is for the King and all courts and courts follow Shariah rules and procedures.
The Saudi justice system has been criticized for being an "ultra-puritan judge", who is often harsh in their punishment (by beheading for magic crimes), but also sometimes too soft (for rape or wife-beating) and slow, for example leaving thousands of women abandoned can not get a divorce. This system has also been criticized for being mysterious, lacking in some protection of justice, and unable to deal with the modern world. In 2007, King Abdullah issued a royal decree to reform the judiciary and create a new court system, and, in 2009, the King made a number of significant changes to judicial personnel at the most senior level by bringing younger generations.
Capital and corporal punishments imposed by Saudi courts, such as beheadings, stoning (to death), amputations, crucifixion and whipping, as well as the number of executions have been heavily criticized. Death penalty may be imposed for various offenses including murder, rape, armed robbery, recurrent drug use, apostasy, adultery, witchcraft and magic and can be done by beheading with a sword, stoning or firing squad, followed by crucifixion.. 345 reported executions between 2007 and 2010 were all done by public beheading. The last reported execution for magic occurred in September 2014.
Although recurrent theft can be punished by right-handed amputation, only one instance of judicial amputation is reported between 2007 and 2010. Homosexual acts can be punished by whip or death. Atheism or "questioning the basics of Islamic religion in which the country is based" is considered a terrorist crime. Glamor is a common and frequent form of punishment for violations of religion and public morality such as drinking alcohol and ignoring the obligations of prayer and fasting.
The punishment of retaliation, or Qisas, is practiced: for example, the eyes can be lifted by surgery on the insistence of the victim who loses his or her own eyes. Families of unlawfully killed persons may choose between demanding the death penalty or granting pardon in exchange for the payment of diyya (blood money), by the offender.
Human rights
Western-based organizations such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and Freedom House condemn the Saudi criminal justice system and its severe penalties. There is no jury in Saudi Arabia and the courts observe some formalities. Human Rights Watch, in its 2008 report, notes that the code of criminal procedure was introduced for the first time in 2002, but lacked some basic protection and, in any case, has been routinely ignored by judges. Those arrested are often not informed of the crimes they are accusing or given access to lawyers and are subject to abuse and torture if they do not confess. In court, there is a presumption of guilt and defendants are often unable to examine witnesses and evidence or provide legal defense. Most trials are held in secret. Examples of the penalty are the British pensioner and cancer survivor Karl Andree, who is 74, faces 360 lashes for brewing alcohol at home. He was later released due to intervention by the British government.
Saudi Arabia is widely accused of possessing one of the world's worst human rights records. Human rights issues that have attracted harsh criticism include the highly disadvantaged women's position (see Woman below), death penalty for homosexuality, religious discrimination, lack of religious freedom and religious police activities (see Religion below). Between 1996 and 2000, Saudi Arabia approved four UN human rights conventions and, in 2004, the government approved the creation of a National Human Rights Society (NSHR), administered by government employees, to monitor its implementation. To date, NSHR activities have been restricted and doubts remain on its neutrality and independence.
Saudi Arabia remains one of the few countries in the world that does not accept the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In response to continuing criticism of his human rights record, the Saudi government pointed to the country's special Islamic character, and insisted that this justified a different social and political order. The US Commission on International Religious Freedom has not succeeded in pushing President Barack Obama to raise human rights issues with King Abdullah during his March 2014 visit to the Kingdom, especially the prisons of Sultan Hamid Marzooq al-Enezi, Saud Falih Awad al-Enezi and Raif Badawi.
For example, Ali Mohammed Baqir al-Nimr was arrested in 2012 when he was 17 because he took part in anti-government protests in Saudi Arabia during the Arab Spring. In May 2014, Ali al-Nimr was sentenced to beheaded and crucified.
In 2013, the government deported thousands of non-Saudis, many of whom are working illegally in the country or have extended their visas. Many reports abound, foreign workers tortured either by employers or others. This has resulted in many basic services suffering from lack of workers, as many Saudi citizens are not interested in working in blue-collar jobs.
Saudi Arabia has a "Counter-Radicalization Program" whose purpose is to "combat the spread and appeal of extremist ideology among the general public" and to "instill the true values ​​of Islam, such as tolerance and moderation." This "tolerance and moderation" has been questioned by the Baltimore Sun, according to Amnesty International's report on Raif Badawi, and in the case of a man from Hafr al-Batin sentenced to death for rejecting Islam. In September 2015, Faisal bin Hassan Trad, the Saudi Arabian ambassador to the UN in Geneva, has been elected chairman of the UN Human Rights Council panel appointing independent experts. In January 2016, Saudi Arabia executed the notorious Shiite cleric Sheikh Nimr who called for a demonstration of pro-democracy and free elections in Saudi Arabia.
In August 2017, ten Nobel Peace Prize recipients, including Desmond Tutu and Lech Wa ?? sa, urged Saudi Arabia to stop the execution of 14 young people to participate in the 2011-12 Saudi Arab protests.
Foreign relations
Saudi Arabia joined the United Nations in 1945 and was a founding member of the Arab League, the Gulf Cooperation Council, the Muslim World League, and the Organization of Islamic Conference (now the Organization for Islamic Cooperation). It played an important role in the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and in 2005 joined the World Trade Organization. Saudi Arabia supports the establishment of the Arab Customs Union in 2015 and the Arab general market by 2020, as announced at the 2009 Arab League Summit.
Since 1960, as a member of OPEC's founder, its oil price policy has generally stabilized the world oil market and is trying to moderate sharp price movements in order not to jeopardize the Western economy.
Between the mid-1970s and 2002 Saudi Arabia spent more than $ 70 billion in "overseas development aid". However, there is evidence that most, in fact, were spent to spread and expand Wahhabism's influence at the expense of other forms of Islam. There is a fierce debate over whether Saudi and Wahhabism's aid has led to extremism in the recipient countries. Two major allegations are that, by their very nature, Wahhabism encourages intolerance and promotes terrorism. Only counting non-Muslim-majority countries, Saudi Arabia has paid for the construction of 1359 mosques, 210 Islamic centers, 202 colleges and 2000 schools.
Saudi Arabia and the United States are strategic allies, and since President Barack Obama came to power in 2009, the US has sold $ 110 billion in weapons to Saudi Arabia. In the first decade of the 21st century, Saudi Arabia paid about $ 100 million to American companies to lobby the US government. Relations with the US became tense after 9/11. American politicians and media have accused the Saudi government of supporting terrorism and tolerating the culture of jihadist. Indeed, Osama bin Laden and fifteen of the nineteen 9/11 hijackers are from Saudi Arabia; in ISIL-occupied Raqqa, by mid 2014, all 12 judges are Saudis. According to former US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, "Saudi Arabia remains an important financial support base for al-Qaeda, the Taliban, LeT and other terrorist groups... Donors in Saudi Arabia are the most significant source of funding for Sunni terrorist groups around the world. "Former CIA director James Woolsey described it as" the land where the Al-Qaeda terrorist organization and its sister are growing. " The Saudi government denies this claim or that it exports religious or cultural extremism. In April 2016, Saudi Arabia threatened to sell $ 750 billion in Treasury securities and other US assets if Congress passes a bill that would allow the Saudi government to be prosecuted over 9/11.
In the Arab and Muslim world, Saudi Arabia is considered pro-Western and pro-American, and certainly a long-term ally of the United States. However, this role and Saudi Arabia in the 1991 Persian Gulf War, in particular the deployment of US forces on Saudi soil from 1991, led to the development of a hostile internalist hostile response. As a result, Saudi Arabia, to some extent, distanced itself from the US and, for example, refused to support or participate in the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003.
The consequences of the 2003 and Arab Spring invasions led to increased alarms in the Saudi monarchy over the emergence of Iranian influence in the region. This fear is reflected in King Abdullah's comments, which personally urged the United States to attack Iran and "cut off the head of the snake". The temporary US-Iranian initiative started secretly in 2011 is said to be feared by the Saudis, and, during the eve of a widely-accepted deal on Iran's nuclear program closing the first phase of the US-Iran dÃÆ' Â © tente, Robert Jordan, who is the US ambassador for Riyadh from 2001 to 2003, said "[t] the worst nightmare Saudis would become [Obama's] government that dismissed a big offer with Iran." The trip to Saudi by US President Barack Obama in 2014 includes a discussion of US-Iran relations, although this fails to resolve the Riyadh issue.
To protect the Khalifah's home, the king of Bahrain, Saudi Arabia raided Bahrain by sending military troops to overthrow Bahrain's rebellion on March 14, 2011. The Saudi government considered a two-month uprising as a "security threat" to be filed. by Shiites representing the majority of Bahrainis.
According to Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki in March 2014, Saudi Arabia along with Qatar provided political, financial and media support to terrorists against the Iraqi government.
On 25 March 2015, Saudi Arabia, pioneering the coalition of Sunni Muslim nations, began military intervention in Yemen against Shiite Houthi and loyal troops to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh, who were overthrown in the 2011 Arab Spring uprising.
In 2015, along with Qatar and Turkey, Saudi Arabia openly supports the Conquest Army, an umbrella group of anti-government forces fighting in the Syrian Civil War reported to include al-Qaeda-linked al-Nusra Front and other Salafi coalitions. known as Ahrar al-Sham.
After a number of incidents during the Hajj season, the most deadly that killed at least 2,070 worshipers by 2015 Mina stepped on, Saudi Arabia has been accused of mismanagement and focused on raising money while neglecting the welfare of pilgrims.
Saudi Arabia has been seen as a moderate influence in the Arab-Israeli conflict, periodically putting forward a peace plan between Israel and the Palestinians and condemning Hezbollah. After Arab Spring Saudi Arabia offered asylum to overthrow President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali from Tunisia and King Abdullah called President Hosni Mubarak from Egypt (before deposition) to offer his support. In early 2014 relations with Qatar became tense because of his support for the Muslim Brotherhood, and Saudi Arabia's belief that Qatar was interfering in its affairs. In August 2014 the two countries looked to explore ways to end the rift.
Military
Saudi Arabia has one of the highest percentage of military spending in the world, spending more than 10% of its GDP in its military. The Saudi Military consists of the Royal Saudi Army, Saudi Royal Air Force, Royal Saudi Royal Navy, Saudi Royal Air Defense, Saudi National Guard (SANG, independent military force), and paramilitary forces, totaling nearly 200,000 active people. personnel -duty. In 2005 the armed forces had the following personnel: army, 75,000; air force, 18,000; air defense, 16,000; navy, 15,500 (including 3,000 marines); and SANG has 75,000 active soldiers and 25,000 tribal levies. In addition, there is the military intelligence service Al Mukhabarat Al A'amah.
The kingdom has long-standing military ties with Pakistan, has long speculated that Saudi Arabia is secretly funding Pakistan's atomic bomb program and trying to buy atomic weapons from Pakistan, in the near future. SANG is not a reserve but a full operational front-line power, and comes from the military-religious power of the Ibn Saud, Ikhwan tribe. Its modern existence, however, can be interpreted as Abdullah's effective martial arts since the 1960s and, unlike other armed forces, is not dependent on the Ministry of Defense and Aviation. SANG has offset the Sudairi faction in the royal family: the deceased Sultan, former Minister of Defense and Aviation, is one called 'Sudairi Seven' and controls the rest of the armed forces until his death in 2011.
Spending on defense and security has risen significantly since the mid-1990s and around US $ 63.7 billion, by 2016. Saudi Arabia is among the top 10 in the world in government spending for its military, representing about 7% of gross domestic product in 2005. Its modern high tech weapons make Saudi Arabia among the world's most heavily armed countries, with its military equipment supplied mainly by the US, France and Britain.
The United States sold more than $ 80 billion in military devices between 1951 and 2006 to the Saudi military. On October 20, 2010, the US State Department informed Congress of its intention to make the biggest arms sale in American history - about $ 60.5 billion purchased by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This package represents a considerable increase in the offensive capabilities of the Saudi armed forces. 2013 saw Saudi military spending rise to $ 67bn, beating England, France and Japan to fourth place globally.
The United Kingdom has also been a major supplier of military equipment to Saudi Arabia since 1965. Since 1985, the UK has supplied military aircraft - mainly Tornado and Eurofighter Typhoon - and other equipment as part of the long-term Al. The ibam weapons deal is estimated to be worth  £ 43 billion in 2006 and is estimated to be worth more than  £ 40 billion. In May 2012, the British defense giant BAE signed a £ 1.2 billion ($ 3 billion) deal to supply Hawk jet trainers to Saudi Arabia.
According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI, in 2010-14 Saudi Arabia became the second largest arms importer in the world, receiving four times more weapons than in 2005-2009. Major imports in 2010-14 include 45 British fighter planes, 38 combat helicopters from the United States, 4 Spanish tankers and more than 600 Canadian armored vehicles. Saudi Arabia has a long list of outstanding weapons orders, including 27 other British fighter planes, 154 combat aircraft from the US and a large number of Canadian armored vehicles. Saudi Arabia receives 41 percent of British arms exports in 2010-14. France gave $ 18 billion in arms sales to Saudi Arabia by 2015 alone. The $ 15 billion arms deal with Saudi Arabia is believed to be the biggest arms sale in Canadian history. In 2016, the European Parliament decided to temporarily impose an arms embargo on Saudi Arabia, as a result of the Yemeni civilian population suffering from conflict with Saudi Arabia. In 2017, Saudi Arabia signed a 110 billion dollar arms deal with the United States.
Geography
Saudi Arabia occupies about 80% of the Arabian Peninsula (the largest peninsula in the world), situated between latitudes 16 Â ° and 33 Â ° LU, and longitude 34 Â ° and 56 Â ° E. Due to the country's southern border with the United Arab Emirates Arab and Oman are not exactly marked, the exact size of the undefined state. The CIA World Factbook estimates 2,149,690 km 2 (830,000 sqÃ, mi) and lists Saudi Arabia as the 13th largest country in the world. This is geographically the largest country in the Arabian Plate.
The geography of Saudi Arabia is dominated by the Arabian Desert, related to semi-desert and shrubs (see satellite picture) and some mountains and plateau. It is, in fact, a number of deserts associated and includes 647,500 km 2 (250,001 sq., mi) Rub 'al Khali ("Empty Quarter") in the southeastern part of the country, the world's largest contiguous desert. There are several lakes in this country but no permanent river, but very many wadis. The fertile areas can be found in alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases. Its main topographic feature is the central plateau rising suddenly from the Red Sea and gradually descending to Najd and towards the Persian Gulf. On the shores of the Red Sea, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as the Tihamah parallel that runs steep cliffs. The southwestern Asir assault is mountainous, and has Mount Sawda 3.133 m (10,279 ft), which is the highest point in the country.
Except for the southwestern province of Asir, Saudi Arabia has a desert climate with very high daytime temperatures and a sharp drop in temperature at night. Summer temperatures average about 45Ã, Â ° C (113Ã, Â ° F), but can be as high as 54Ã, Â ° C (129Ã, Â ° F). In winter, temperatures rarely drop below 0 Â ° C (32 Â ° F). In the spring and autumn heat, temperatures average about 29 ° C (84 ° F). Annual rainfall is very low. The area of ​​Asir is different in that it is influenced by the Indian Ocean monsoon, usually between October and March. An average of 300 mm (12 in) of rainfall occurs during this period, which is about 60% of annual rainfall.
Animal
Animal life includes the Arabic leopard, Arab wolf, striped hyena, mongoose, baboon, rabbit, sand cat, and jerboas. Animals such as deer, oryx, leopard and cheetah are relatively numerous until the 19th century, when extensive hunting reduced these animals to near extinction. Birds include eagles (caught and trained for hunting), hawks, eagles, vultures, sandgrouse, bulbul, etc. There are several species of snakes, many of which are venomous. Saudi Arabia is home to rich marine life. The Red Sea is specifically a rich and diverse ecosystem. More than 1,200 fish species have been recorded in the Red Sea, and about 10% of these are not found elsewhere. It also includes 42 deep sea fish species.
This rich diversity is in part due to the 2,000 km (1,240 mile) coral reef that stretches along its coastline; This edge coral reef is 5000-7000 years old and is mostly formed from coral rocks acropora and porites. Coral forms platforms and sometimes lagoons along the coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as Blue Hole (Red Sea) in Dahab). This coastal reef is also visited by Pelagic Red Sea fish species, including some of the 44 species of sharks. The Red Sea also contains many offshore reefs including some true atolls. Many of the offshore coral formations are unusual in opposing classical coral classification schemes (ie, Darwin), and are generally associated with high levels of tectonic activity characteristic of the area. Pets include legendary Arabian horses, Arabian camels, sheep, goats, cows, donkeys, chickens etc. Reflecting the country's dominant desert conditions, Saudi plant life consists mostly of plants, plants and shrubs that require little water. The date palm tree ( Phoenix dactylifera ) is widespread.
Administrative division
Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 regions (Arabic: ????? ?????? ?; manatiq id? Riyya , singing. ??????????? mintaqah idariyya ). The area is subdivided into 118 governorates (Arabic: ??????? ?; muhafazat , sing. ??? ???; muhafazah ). This number includes 13 regional capitals, which have different status as municipalities (Arabic: ????? ?; amanah ) led by the mayor (Arabic: ???? ?; amin ). Further government becomes sub-governor (Arabic: ????? ?, marakiz , singing ???? ; markaz ).
13 territories of Saudi Arabia.
City
Economy
The economy of Saudi command is petroleum-based; about 75% of budget revenue and 90% of export revenues came from the oil industry. It relies heavily on foreign workers with about 80% of those employed in the private sector are non-Saudi. Among the challenges for the Saudi economy include stopping or reversing the decline in per capita income, improving education to prepare youth for the workforce and providing them with jobs, diversifying the economy, stimulating the private sector and housing development, reducing corruption and inequality.
The oil industry comprises about 45% of Saudi Arabia's nominal gross domestic product, compared to 40% of the private sector (see below). Saudi Arabia officially has about 260 billion barrels (4.1 ÃÆ' - 10 10 m 3 ) of the oil reserves, which comprises about one-fifth of the reserves the total oil proven in the world.
In the 1990s, Saudi Arabia experienced a significant contraction of oil revenues combined with high population growth rates. Revenue per capita decreased from $ 11,700 at the peak of the oil explosion in 1981 to $ 6,300 in 1998. Taking into account the impact of changes in real oil prices on the real gross domestic product of the Kingdom, real-time GDP was calculated to be 330.381 billion USD 1999 in 2010. The increase in oil prices in assets helped increase GDP per capita to $ 17,000 in 2007 dollars (about $ 7,400 adjusted for inflation), but has declined since the fall of oil prices in mid-2014.
OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) limits the production of its members' oils based on their "proven reserves". Saudi Arabia's reserves have shown little change since 1980, with the main exception being an increase of about 100 billion barrels (1,6 ÃÆ' - 10 10 m 3 ) between 1987 and 1988. Matthew Simmons has suggested that Saudi Arabia greatly exaggerates its reserves and may soon show a decline in production (see peak oil).
From 2003 to 2013 "some key services" were privatized - municipal water supply, electricity, telecommunications - and parts of health education and care, traffic control and car accident reporting were also privatized. According to Arab News columnist Abdel Aziz Aluwaisheg, "in almost every area, consumers have raised serious concerns about the performance of these privatized entities." The Tadawul All Share Index (TASI) of the Saudi bourse peaked at 16,712.64 in 2005, and closed at 8,535.60, by the end of 2013. In November 2005, Saudi Arabia was approved as a member of the World Trade Organization. Negotiations to join have focused on the extent to which Saudi Arabia is willing to increase market access to foreign goods and by 2000, the government established Saudi Arabia's General Investment Authority to encourage foreign direct investment in the kingdom. Saudi Arabia maintains a list of sectors where foreign investment is prohibited, but the government plans to open some closed sectors such as telecommunications, insurance, and electricity transmission/distribution from time to time.
The government has also sought to "sanctify" the economy, replacing foreign workers with Saudi citizens with limited success.
Saudi Arabia has had a five-year "Development Plan" since 1970. Among its plans is to launch an "economic city" (eg King Abdullah Economic City) to be completed by 2020, in an effort to diversify the economy and provide jobs. By 2013 four cities have been planned. The King has announced that per capita income is expected to increase from $ 15,000 in 2006 to $ 33,500 by 2020. Cities will spread throughout Saudi Arabia to promote diversification for each region and their economy, and cities are projected to contribute $ 150 billion for GDP.
In addition to oil and gas, the Saudis also have a small gold mining sector in the Mahd adh Dhahab region and other minerals industries, agriculture sector (mainly in the southwest) by date and livestock, and a large number of temporary jobs created by about two million hajj annual pilgrims.
Statistics on poverty in the kingdom are not available through UN sources because the Saudi government does not issue anything. Saudi states are reluctant to call attention or complain about poverty. In December 2011, the Saudi interior ministry arrested three journalists and detained them for nearly two weeks for interrogation after they uploaded a video about the topic to YouTube. The authors claim videos that 22% of Saudis can be considered poor (2009). Observers who are researching this issue prefer to remain anonymous because of the risk of being arrested.
Agriculture
Saudi Arabia encourages desert farming by providing substantial subsidies and consuming 300 billion cubic meters of most non-renewable reserves free of charge to grow alfalfa, cereals, meat and milk in the Arabian Desert. Consuming non-renewable groundwater results in the loss of about four-fifths of total groundwater reserves by 2012.
Water supply and sanitation
Water supply and sanitation in Saudi Arabia is characterized by significant investments in seawater desalination, water distribution, sewerage and wastewater treatment leading to a substantial increase in access to drinking water and sanitation over the last few decades. About 50% of drinking water comes from desalina
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