Decolonization

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Decolonization (American English) or decolonization (English English) is the collapse of colonialism: where a nation establishes and maintains its dominance over one or more other territories. The term refers primarily to the demolition, in the years after World War II, of the colonial kingdom established before World War I around the world. Decolonization, however, refers not only to the "abolition of the domination of non-indigenous forces" within geographical spaces and colonized institutions, but also to the decolonization of the intellectuals of colonial ideas that make the colonized feel inferior..

The UN Special Committee on Decolonization has stated that in the process of decolonization there is no alternative to the invaders who allow the process of self-determination, but in practice decolonization may involve nonviolent revolutions or national liberation wars by pro-independence groups. It may be intramural or involves the intervention of foreign powers acting individually or through international bodies such as the United Nations. Although examples of decolonization can be found as early as the writings of Thucydides, there have been several very active periods of decolonization in modern times. This included the breakup of the Spanish Empire in the 19th century; from the Kingdom of Germany, Austro-Hungary, Ottoman, and Russia after World War I; the colonial kingdom of England, France, the Netherlands, Japan, Portugal, Belgium and Italy after World War II; and the Soviet Union (successor to the Russian Empire) in 1991.

Video Decolonization

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Decolonization is the political process and vital internalization of the rejection of the colonialist mindset and the "norm". In extreme circumstances, there was a war of independence, sometimes after the revolution. More often, there is a dynamic cycle in which negotiations fail, minor disturbances occur resulting in oppression by police and military forces, escalating into a more violent rebellion leading to further negotiations until independence is given. In rare cases, the actions of the pro-independence movement were characterized by nonviolence, with the Indian independence movement led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi being one of the most important examples, and violence came as active suppression of the occupying forces or as political opposition. from a force representing a minority local community that feels threatened by the prospect of independence. For example, there is a war of independence in French Indochina, while in some countries in West Africa France (excluding Maghrib states) decolonization results from a combination of insurrection and negotiation. This process is only completed when the de facto government of a newly independent country is recognized as a sovereign state de jure by the community of nations.

Independence is often difficult to achieve without the encouragement and practical support of one or more external parties. The motive for providing such assistance varies: countries with the same ethnic and/or religion can sympathize with those in the country, or a mighty nation may try to disrupt the colony as a tactical move to weaken the colonial power or the invading enemy. or to create a space for its own sphere of influence; these examples include British support from the Haitian Revolution against France, and the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, in which the United States warns European powers not to interfere in the affairs of the newly independent Western states.

As world opinion became more pro-independence after World War I, there was an institutionalized collective effort to advance the cause of decolonization through the League of Nations. Under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, a number of mandates have been made. The stated objective is to prepare these countries for self-government, but it is often interpreted as the only redistribution of control over the former colonies of the losing forces, especially the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire. This redeployment continues through the United Nations, with a similar system of trust areas created to adapt control over the two former colonies and mandated territories.

In the referendum, some colonial residents have chosen to maintain their colonial status, such as Gibraltar and French Guiana. There are even examples, such as the Falklands War, where imperial forces fight to defend the right of the colony to continue to be a colony. The colonial powers sometimes promote decolonization to relieve the financial, military and other burdens that tend to grow in colonies where the colonial government becomes more hospitable.

Decolonization is rarely achieved through one historical act but progressed through one or more decolonization stages, each of which can be offered or championed: this may include the introduction of elected representatives (advisory or voting, minority or majority or even exclusive), degrees of autonomy or self-government. Thus, the final phase of decolonization may, in fact, involve little more than surrendering responsibility for foreign relations and security, and requesting recognition of de jure for new sovereignty. However, even after state recognition, the level of continuity can be maintained through bilateral agreements between the same current government that involve practicality such as military training, collective protection pacts, or even garrisons and/or military bases.

Maps Decolonization

History

Beginning with the rise of the United States in the 1770s, decolonization took place in the context of Atlantic history, against the backdrop of the American and French revolutions. Decolonization became a popular movement in many colonies in the 20th century, and a reality after 1945.

American Revolution

Thirteen North American colonies in Great Britain were the first to emerge from the British Empire in 1776, and were recognized as an independent state by France in 1778 and England in 1783. The United States was the first group of European colonies established to achieve independence. and establish itself as a nation, and is the first independent settler country in America.

Haitian Revolution

The Haitian Revolution was a slave uprising that began in 1791 in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. In 1804, Haiti gained independence from France as the Haitian Empire, which later became a republic.

Spanish America

Napoleonic war chaos in Europe cuts the direct link between Spain and its colonies in America, allowing the process of decolonization to begin.

With the Spanish invasion by Napoleon in 1806, the American colonies declared autonomy and allegiance to King Ferdinand VII. The contract was damaged and the territories of the Spanish Empire had to decide whether to show loyalty to the Cadiz Junta (the only territory in Spain free of Napoleon) or to have its own junta (assembly). The economic monopoly of the metropolis is the main reason why many countries decide to become independent of Spain. In 1809, the Latin American war of independence began with an uprising in La Paz, Bolivia. In 1807 and 1808, the Viceroyalty of the River Plate was attacked by the British, after their 2nd defeat a Frenchman named Santiague de Liniers proclaimed a new Viceroy by the locals, and subsequently accepted by the Spanish. In May 1810 in Buenos Aires, a Junta was created, but in Montevideo it was not recognized by the local government that followed the authority of Cadiz Junta, the rivalry between the two ports was the main reason for distrust between the two cities. For the next 15 years, Spain and the Kingdom on one side, and rebels fighting in South America and Mexico. Many countries declare their independence. In 1824, the Spanish forces were defeated in the Battle of Ayacucho. The land was free and in 1898, Spain lost Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Spanish-American War, Puerto Rico became a US Colony, but Cuba became independent in 1902.

Ottoman Empire

Siprus

Cyprus was attacked and taken over by the Ottoman Empire in 1570. Later it was defeated by the Ottomans in 1878. Cyprus declared their true humiliation to Ottoman rule through rebellion and the nationalist movement. The Ottoman dynasty merely suppressed this rebellion in the most cruel way, but it only ended in waging an uprising and a desire for independence. The Cypriots wanted to join Greece because they felt close to Greece. They are tired of 3 centuries of Turkish rule and openly expressed their desire for enosis. The Cypriots will embrace Greek culture and traditions. They abandoned Ottoman architecture and showed little respect for Ottoman rule. All of these opposing actions can be attributed to decolonization. When Cyprus made an act of nationalism, they participated in the form of decolonization as they sought to eradicate all traces of Turkish and Muslim influence in their society. The War of Independence of Greece had a major influence on Cyprus and after the Ottomans left, Cyprus continued to create the Greek culture they wanted to be a part of. Cyprus will continue to create this imagined cultural identity of Greece. It can also be a form of human geography imagined because Cyprus uses this identity to justify its rebellion and its nationalist movement.

A number of people (especially Christians in the Balkans) previously conquered by the Ottoman Empire were able to achieve independence in the nineteenth century, a process that culminated in the Ottoman defeat in the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-78.

The Ottoman Empire failed to increase the revenue and monopoly of the effective armed forces. This may have caused the fall of the Ottoman Empire.

Egypt

After the French Invasion of 1798 from Egypt and subsequent expulsions in 1801, the commander of the Albanian regiment, Muhammad Ali, was able to rule Egypt. Although he was recognized by the Emperor in Constantinople in 1805 as the pasha, Muhammad Ali, and finally his successors, was the de facto king of a largely independent state that manages his own foreign relations. Yet, despite this de facto independence, Egypt remained a subordinate state of the Ottoman Empire who had to pay a great annual honor to the Emperor. Throughout the 'long nineteenth century', Muhammad Ali would send a number of Azhar scholars to France and other European countries to be educated in the empirical sciences (due to the deeply inferiority complex ingrained by the defeat of France); However, these scholars have unwittingly participated in their country's intellectual colonization throughout the century and established a national educational system on secular philosophy and secular principles and Western culture in general to this day. After declaring war on Turkey in November 1914, Britain unilaterally declared the rights of the Sultan and the title of Egypt abolished and proclaimed its own protectorate of the land.

Greek

The War of Greek Independence (1821-1829) was championed for liberating Greece from the Ottoman occupation for three centuries. Independence is guaranteed by the intervention of the British and French navy and the French and Russian troops, but Greece is limited to a region including perhaps only a third of the ethnic Greeks, which then grows significantly with the Megali Idea project. The war ended many of the privileges of the Constantinople.

Bulgarian

Following the failed Bulgarian uprising in 1876, the subsequent Russian-Turkish war ended with the Treaty while San Stefano built a vast new territory in Bulgaria including most of Macedonia and Thrace. The final 1878 Berlin Agreement allows the other Great Power to limit the size of the country to new Russian clients and even briefly divide the country of this ass into two, Bulgaria and East Rumelia, but the irredentis claim of the first treaty will direct the claims of Bulgaria through the first and second Balkan Wars and both Wars World.

Romanian

Romania rallied on the Russian side in the Russian-Turkish War and in the Treaty of 1878 in Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by Great Power.

Serbia

Centuries of armed and unarmed struggle ended with the recognition of Serbian independence from the Ottoman Empire at the Berlin Congress in 1878.

Montenegro

Independence of the Kingdom of Montenegro from the Ottoman Empire was recognized at the Berlin congress in 1878. However, the Montenegrin state has been de facto independent since 1711 (formally accepted by Tsardom of Russia by order of Tsar Petr I Alexeyevich- Romanov. In the period 1795-1798, Montenegro once again claiming independence after the Battle of Krusi. In 1806, it was recognized as a force against Napoleon, meaning that he had an army that was fully mobilized and supplied (by Russia, through Admiral Dmitry Senyavin in the Gulf of Kotor) In the reign of Petar II Petrovi? Njego ?, Montenegro was again colonized by Turkey, but that changed with the arrival of Knyaz Danilo I, with a very successful war against Turkey in the late 1850s ending with a decisive victory of the Montenegrin army under Grand Duke Mirko Petrovi? -Njego ?, brother from Danilo I, at the Battle of Grahovac.Full independence was given to Montenegro, after almost 170 years of fighting Turkey, Bosnia, Albania and France (1806-1814) at the Berlin Congress.

United Kingdom

The rise of the bourgeois native elite is very typical of the British Empire, which seems to be less able (or less cruel) in controlling political nationalism. Driven by the pragmatic demands of budget and labor, Britain made a deal with the nationalist elite. Throughout the empire, the common protocol was to hold a constitutional conference in London to discuss the transition to a larger self-government and then independence, submit a constitutional conference report to parliament, if approved to hand the bill to Parliament in Westminster to end British responsibility (by copy new constitution annexed), and finally, if approved, the issuance of the Council of the Order establishing the exact date of independence.

After World War I, several former German and Ottoman territories in the Middle East, Africa and the Pacific were ruled by Britain as the League of Nations mandate. Some are run directly by the British, and others by the British authorities - Nauru and New Guinea by Australia, Southwest Africa by the South African Union, and Western Samoa by New Zealand.

Egypt became independent in 1922, although Britain maintained the prerogative of security, the control of the Suez Canal, and the effective control of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The 1931 Westminster Statute establishes full legislative independence for six areas - Canada, Newfoundland, Australia, Ireland Free State, New Zealand and the South African Union. Newfoundland turned self-government back to London in 1934. Iraq, a League of Nations mandate, became independent in 1932.

In response to the growth of the Indian independence movement, Britain undertook successive reforms to the British Raj, culminating in the Indian Government Act (1935). These reforms include the creation of elected legislative assemblies in several Provinces of British India. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, leader of the Indian independence movement, led a peaceful resistance to British rule. By becoming a symbol of peace and opposition to British imperialism, many Indians began to see Britain as the cause of the Indian problem that led to a new sense of nationalism among its inhabitants. With the new wave of Indian nationalism, Gandhi was finally able to garner the necessary support to push back England and create an independent India in 1947.

Tropical Africa was only fully drawn into the colonial system at the end of the 19th century. In the north-eastern independence continued the Ethiopian Empire remained a flare of hope for pro-independence activists. However, with the anti-colonial war of the 1900s (the decade) almost over, a new form of modernization of African Nationalism began to gain power in the early 20th century with the advent of Pan-Africanism, as advocated by Jamaican journalist Marcus Garvey (1887-1940 ) a widely distributed newspaper demanding the immediate removal of European imperialism, as well as republicism in Egypt. Kwame Nkrumah (1909-1972) inspired by Garvey's works led Ghana to independence from the colonial government.

Independence for the colonies in Africa began with the independence of Sudan in 1956, and Ghana in 1957. All British colonies in mainland Africa became independent in 1966, although Rhodesia's unilateral declaration of independence in 1965 was not recognized by Britain or internationally.

Some British colonies in Asia are directly administered by British officials, while others are ruled by local kings as protectorates or in child alliances with the British.

In 1947, British India was partitioned into independent territories of India and Pakistan. Hundreds of prince countries, a country ruled by kings in child alliance agreements with Britain, are integrated into India and Pakistan. India and Pakistan were involved in several wars in the former state of Jammu and Kashmir. French India was integrated into India between 1950 and 1954, and India annexed Portuguese India in 1961, and the kingdom of Sikkim in 1975.

Violence, civil war and partition

Significant violence was involved in several major cases of decolonization of the United Kingdom; partition is a frequent solution. In 1783, the North American colony was divided between the independent United States, and the British North America, which later became Canada.

The Indian Uprising of 1857 It was a partial uprising of the Indian Army, characterized by massacres of civilians on both sides. It was not a movement for independence, however, and only a small part of India was involved. As a result, the British withdrew from the reforms of the modernization of Indian society, and the degree of organized violence under the British Raj, relatively small, and largely initiated by repressive British administrators, as in the 1919 Amritsar massacre, Or police attack on Salt March 1930. the infectious massive eruption after Britain left in 1947, transforming India into new countries in India and Pakistan.

The independence movement in Ireland and the twentieth and early 20th centuries was marked by occasional violent outbursts, culminating in the small-scale Easter Rising of 1916 and the much larger Irish Independence War from 1919 to 1921. It was decided when London gave independence. to the Catholic region in southern Ireland, and keep control of Protestant Northern Ireland.

Cyprus, which was under British full control in 1914 from the Ottoman Empire, was culturally divided between the majority Greek elements (demanding "enosis or union with Greece) and the Turkish minority." London for decades considered it necessary for the island to defend the Suez Canal , but after the 1956 Suez crisis, which was a small factor, and the Greek violence became a more serious problem, Cyprus became an independent state in 1960, but ethnic violence increased until 1974, when Turkey invaded and partitioned the island. , blame the other.

Palestine became the British mandate of the League of Nations, and Britain gained support during the war of both sides by making good promises to the Arabs and Jews. See Balfour Declaration. The enthno decade - religious violence is produced. The UK was pulled out, and the mandate was effectively partitioned.

French Empire

After World War I, the colonized people were frustrated at France's failure to recognize the efforts provided by the French colony (resources, but more importantly colonial troops - the famous tirailleurs). Although in Paris, the Grand Mosque of Paris was built in recognition of these efforts, the French state had no intention of allowing its own government, let alone giving independence to those who were colonized. Thus, nationalism in the colonies became stronger between the two wars, leading to the Rif Abd Al-Krim War (1921-1925) in Morocco and for the creation of Messali Hadj North Africa in Algeria in 1925. However, this movement will gain its full potential just after World War II.

After World War I, France manages the former Ottomans of Syria and Lebanon, and the former German colonies of Togoland and Cameroon, as the League of Nations mandates. Lebanon declared its independence in 1943, and Syria in 1945.

Although France was ultimately the winner of World War II, the Nazi occupation of Germany over France and its northern African colonies during the war had disrupted colonial rule. On October 27, 1946 the French adopted a new constitution that created the Fourth Republic, and replaced the French Union for the colonial kingdom. But the power over the colonies remained concentrated in France, and the power of local assemblies outside France was very limited. On the night of March 29, 1947, a nationalist uprising in Madagascar led the French government led by Paul Ramadier (Socialist) to carry out the repression by force: one year of fierce fighting, 11,000-40,000 Malagasy died.

In 1946, the French Indochina states withdrew from the French Union, leading to the Indochina War (1946-54). Ho Chi Minh, once a founder of the French Communist Party in 1920 and founded the Vietminh in 1941, declared independence from France, and led armed resistance to the reoccupation of Indochina in France. Cambodia and Laos gained independence in 1953, and the 1954 Geneva Accord ended the French occupation of Indochina, leaving North Vietnam and South Vietnam independent.

In 1956, Morocco and Tunisia gained their independence from France. In 1960, eight independent states emerged from French West Africa, and five from French Equatorial Africa. The Algerian War of Independence raged from 1954 to 1962. To this day, the Algerian war - officially called "public order operation" until the 1990s - remains a trauma for France and Algeria. Philosopher Paul Ricoeur has spoken of the need for "decolonization of memory", beginning with the recognition of the Paris 1961 massacre during the Algerian war, and the decisive role of Africa and especially North African labor migrants in the Trente Glorieuses period of post-war economic growth World II. In the 1960s, due to the economic need for post-war reconstruction and rapid economic growth, French businessmen actively sought to recruit labor from the colonies, explaining the current multiethnic population.

After 1918

Western European colonial power

The New Imperialism period in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which included scrambling for Africa and the Opium War, marked the peak of European colonization. It also accelerates the trend that will end colonialism. The tremendous material demands of the conflict have spread worldwide economic changes (especially inflation), and the social pressures associated with "war imperialism" have created a growing middle class of farmers and middle class riots.

Economic growth creates stakeholders with their own demands, while racial issues keep these people distinctly separated from the colonial middle class and must form their own groups. The beginning of mass nationalism, as a concept and practice, would fatally weaken the ideologies of imperialism.

There are, of course, other factors, from agrarian change (and disasters - French Indochina), changes or developments in religion (Buddhism in Burma, Islam in the Indies, few people like John Chilembwe in Nyasaland), and the impact of the Great Depression 1930s.

The Great Depression, despite its concentration of impact on the industrial world, is also very destructive in rural colonies. Agricultural prices fell much harder and faster than industrial goods. From about 1925 until World War II, the colony suffered. The colonial powers are concentrated on domestic issues, protectionism and tariffs, ignoring the damage occurring to the flow of international trade. The colonies, almost all of the major producers of "moneymakers," lost most of their export earnings and were forced away from a complementary "open" colonial economy to a "closed" system. While some regions returned to subsistence farming (British Malaya) others diversified (India, West Africa), and some began to industrialize. These economies will not fit the colonial jacket when efforts are made to update links. Furthermore, European owned and managed plantations proved more susceptible to extended deflation than indigenous capitalists, reducing the dominance of "white" peasants in the colonial economy and making European governments and investors in the 1930s coopt the indigenous elite - regardless of its implications. for the future. The colonial reforms also accelerated their aims; primarily moving from a non-interventionist collaborative system toward directed, disruptive, directing management to foster economic change. The creation of a sincere bureaucratic government promotes the formation of the indigenous bourgeoisie.

United States

As a former colony itself, the United States approaches imperialism differently from other countries. Much of its energy and rapidly growing population is directed westward across the North American continent against claims by Britain and France, the Spanish Empire and Mexico. Native Americans are sent to reservations, often reluctantly. With the support of Britain, his Monroe doctrine placed America as a region of interest, banning other (mainly Spanish) countries from the recolonization of a newly independent Latin American government. However, France, took advantage of the disruption of the American government during the Civil War, military intervention in Mexico and established a French-protected monarchy. Spain took steps to occupy the Dominican Republic and restore colonial rule. The Union victory in the Civil War of 1865 forced France and Spain to agree to the American demands to evacuate the two countries. The only African colony in America, Liberia, was formed privately and achieved independence early; Washington unofficially protected him. In 1900 the US advocated Open Door Policy and opposed the direct division of China.

After 1898 direct intervention expanded in Latin America. In 1867 the United States bought the Russian American from the Tsar and annexed Hawaii in 1898. This added most of the remaining Spanish colonies in 1898-99. Deciding not to annex Cuba directly, the US designates it as a client country with obligations including the endowment of Guantanimo Bay to the US Navy. The first governor's attempt to overturn the island's constitution and stay in power past the end of his tenure sparked a provoking rebellion between 1906 and 1909, but this was again followed by devolution. Similarly, the McKinley administration, despite prosecuting the Philippine-American War against the original republic, determined that the Philippine Islands Region was finally granted independence. In 1917, Puerto Rico became a full-fledged US citizen. The US government declared Puerto Rico the territory was no longer a colony and stopped disseminating information about it to the UN Decolonization Committee. As a result, the UN General Assembly removes Puerto Rico from a list of non-autonomous regions. Four referendums showed little support for independence, but much interest in statehood such as Hawaii and Alaska was accepted in 1959.

The Monroe doctrine was expanded by Roosevelt Corollary in 1904, provided that the United States has the right and obligation to intervene "in such cases as the false or impotent" that a nation in the Western Hemisphere is vulnerable to European control. In practice, this means that the United States is led to act as a collection agency for European creditors by administering duties in the Dominican Republic (1905-1941), Haiti (1915-1934), and elsewhere. The intrusiveness and bad relationships were somewhat examined by the Clark Memorandum and abandoned by Franklin D. Roosevelt's "Neighbor Policy".

After 1947, the United States poured tens of billions of dollars into the Marshall Plan, and other grants and loans to Europe and Asia to rebuild the world economy. Washington pushed hard to accelerate decolonization and end the colonial kingdom of its Western allies, most importantly during the 1956 Suez Crisis, but American military bases were established worldwide and direct and indirect intervention continued in Korea, Indochina, Latin America ( inter alia , occupation of 1965 in the Dominican Republic), Africa, and the Middle East against the Communist invasion and rebellion. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the United States has been less active in America, but has attacked Afghanistan and Iraq after the September 11, 2001 attacks, setting up military and air bases in Central Asia.

Japanese

Before World War I, Japan had acquired some of the great colonial treasures in East Asia such as Taiwan (1895) and Korea (1910). Japan joined the allies in World War I, and after the war won the South Pacific Mandate, a former German colony in Micronesia, as the League of Nations Mandates. Pursuing colonial policies comparable to European powers, the Japanese settled significant Japanese ethnic populations in their colonies while suppressing indigenous ethnic populations by upholding the learning and use of Japanese in schools. Other methods such as public interaction, and attempts to root out Korean, Hokkien, and Hakka use among indigenous peoples, are seen used. Japan also established Imperial universities in Korea (Keijo Imperial University) and Taiwan (Taihoku University) to impose education.

In 1931, Japan captured Manchuria from the Republic of China, establishing a puppet state under Puyi, the last Manchu emperor of China. In 1933 Japan seized China's Jehol province, and put it into his Manchurian treasures. The Second Sino-Japanese War began in 1937, and Japan occupied much of eastern China, including the Republican capital of Nanjing. An estimated 20 million Chinese died during the 1931-1945 war with Japan.

In December 1941, the Japanese Empire joined World War II by attacking European and US colonies in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, including French Indochina, Hong Kong, Philippines, Burma, Malaya, Indonesia, Portuguese Timor, and others. After surrendering to the Allies in 1945, Japan was deprived of all its colonies. The Soviet Union declared war on Japan in August 1945, and shortly after occupying and annexing the Kuril Islands in the south, which is still claimed by Japan.

Central Europe

The Russian, German, and Austro-Hungarian empires collapsed at the end of World War I, and were replaced by the republic. Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Czechoslovakia became an independent state. Yugoslavia and Romania extend to the former Austro-Hungarian region. The Soviet Union replaced the Russian empire in the remaining territory if the previous territory, and Germany, Austria, and Hungary reduced in size.

In 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria and parts of Czechoslovakia, and in 1939, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union concluded an agreement to occupy the states that were among them; The USSR occupied Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and Germany and the Soviet Union divided Poland into two. The Polish occupation started World War II. Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941. The Soviet Union allied itself with Britain and the United States, and emerged as one of the winners of the war, which occupied much of central and eastern Europe.

After 1945

Planning for decolonization

AS. and Philippines

In the United States, the two major parties were divided on the Philippine gains, which became a major campaign issue in 1900. Republicans, who favored permanent acquisitions, won elections, but after a decade or so, Republicans turned their attention to the Caribbean, focusing on development Panama Canal. President Woodrow Wilson, a Democrat in the office from 1913 to 1921, ignored the Philippines, and focused on Mexico and the Caribbean countries. In the 1920s, a peaceful attempt by the Philippine leadership to pursue independence proved convincing. When the Democrats returned to power in 1933, they worked with the Philippines to plan for a smooth transition to independence. This was scheduled for 1946 by the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934. In 1935, the Philippines was diverted from territorial status, controlled by a designated governor, to a semi-independent status of the Commonwealth of the Philippines. Its constitutional conventions wrote a new constitution, approved by Washington and in effect, with elected governors Manuel L. Quezon and the legislature. Foreign affairs remained under American control. The Philippines is building a new army, under General Douglas MacArthur, who took time off from the US Army position to take over the command of the new forces reporting to Quezon. The Japanese occupation of 1942 to 1945 was disrupted but did not delay the transition. This happened on schedule in 1946 when Manuel Roxas was president.

Portugal

Although small, poor country, Portugal has one of the oldest and largest kingdoms. England had long protected him, and in 1945 regained his lost possessions from Japan. Portugal is an authoritarian state, without a sense of democracy at home or in its colony. There is a strong will to maintain ownership and all costs, and to aggressively defeat every rebellion. However, Portugal was powerless when India captured Goa in 1961. In 1961, the nationalist forces began organizing in Portugal, and the uprising and spread to Mozambique and Guinea Bissau. Lisbon increased its repressive actions, and established a strategic hamlet. Due to strong disbelief in the indigenous population, Portugal sent 300,000 other European settlers to Angola in 1974. In 1974 the left-wing revolution inside Portugal, destroying the old system, and encouraging pro-Soviet elements to try to seize control in the colonies. The result was a very long and very difficult Civil War and Angola, and a lower uprising in Mozambique.

Belgium

Belgium is a small, wealthy European country that has an imperium imposed upon it by international demand in 1908 in response to the devastation of King Leopold who strongly persecutes the Congo. He added Rwanda and Burundi as the League of Nations mandate of the former German Empire in 1919. The colony remained independent during the war, while Belgium itself was occupied by the Germans cruelly. There is no serious planning for independence, and very little training or education is provided. The Belgian Congo is very rich, and many Belgian businessmen are trying hard to maintain control. The local rebellion grew in power and finally, the Belgian king suddenly announced in 1959 that independence was on the agenda - and was hastily arranged in 1960, for a very bitter state and divided on social and economic grounds.

Netherlands

The Netherlands, a rich little country in Western Europe, has spent centuries building its empire. In 1940 it was largely composed of the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). Its large oil reserves provide about 14 percent of the Dutch national product and support a large population of Dutch government officials and businessmen in Jakarta and other major cities. The Dutch controlled and almost starved to death by the Nazis during the war, and the Japanese drowned the Dutch fleet in the East Indies. In 1945 the Dutch could not regain these islands themselves; he did so by relying on British military aid and American financial funds. By the time the Dutch army returned, the independent government under Sukarno, originally founded by Japan, came to power. Dutch in the Indies, and at home, practically agreed (except for the Communists) that Dutch power and dignity and wealth depended on a very expensive war to reclaim the islands. Compromise is negotiated, trusted by both parties. When the Republic of Indonesia succeeded in suppressing a large-scale communist insurgency, the United States realized that a nationalist government was needed as an ally in the Cold War. Dutch ownership was an obstacle to the goals of the Cold War of America, so Washington forced the Dutch to grant full independence. Several years later, Soekarno seized all Dutch property and expelled all ethnic Dutch - over 300,000 - as well as several hundred thousand ethnic Indonesians who supported the Dutch struggle. As a result, the Dutch were very prosperous in the 1950s and 1960s but nevertheless public opinion was very hostile to the United States for betrayal. Washington remains puzzled as to why the Dutch are so infatuated with the obvious cause without hope.

UN Trust Area

When the United Nations was formed in 1945, it established areas of trust. These territories included the territory of the League of Nations mandate that had not achieved independence in 1945, along with the former Somaliland of Italy. The Pacific Islands' Confidence Territory was moved from Japan to the US administration. By 1990 all but one of the territories of trust had attained independence, either as an independent state or by merger with another independent state; Northern Mariana Islands were chosen to be the commonwealth of the United States.

The Emergence of the Third World (1945-present)

The term "Third World" was invented by the French demograph of Alfred Sauvy in 1952, in the Third Estate model, which, according to AbbÃ© Â© Â© SieyÃƒÆ'Ã‚Â¨s, represents everything, but is meaningless: "... because in the end it is ignored, exploited, Third World like Third Estate, want to be something too "(Sauvy). The emergence of this new political entity, within the framework of the Cold War, is complex and painful. Several tentative attempts were made to regulate newly independent states against the common front against US and Soviet influence on them, with the consequences of the already working Sino-Soviet split. Thus, the Non-Aligned Movement was formed itself, around the main figures of Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, Soekarno, the Indonesian president, Josip Broz Tito the Yugoslav Communist leader, and Gamal Abdel Nasser, the Egyptian chief who successfully opposed the French and British imperial powers during Suez 1956 crisis. After the 1954 Geneva Conference ending the First Indochina War, the 1955 Bandung Conference garnered Nasser, Nehru, Tito, Sukarno, the Indonesian leader, and Zhou Enlai, Prime Minister of the People's Republic of China. In 1960, the UN General Assembly voted for the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to the Colonial and People States. The following year, the Non-Aligned Movement was formally established in Belgrade (1961), and was followed in 1964 by the creation of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) which attempted to promote the New International Economic Order (NIEO). The NIEO opposes the 1944 Bretton Woods system, which has benefited the leading countries that have created it, and remained in force until 1971 after the US convertibility suspension from dollar to gold. NIEO's main teachings are:

Developing countries should have the right to organize and control the activities of multinational companies operating in their territories.
They should be free to nationalize or take over foreign property in conditions favorable to them.
They should be free to organize the association of primary commodity producers similar to the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, created on 17 September 1960 to protest pressure by major oil companies (mostly owned by US, British and Dutch citizens ) to reduce oil prices and payments to producers); all other states must recognize this right and take no economic, military or political measures that count towards limiting it.
International trade should be based on the need to ensure stable, fair and favorable prices for raw materials, non-reciprocal and non-discriminatory common tariff preferences, and technology transfer to developing countries; and should provide unconditional economic and technical assistance.

However UNCTAD was not very effective in applying this New International Economic Order (NIEO), and the social and economic inequalities between industrialized countries and the Third World continued to expand throughout the 1960s to the 21st century. The 1973 oil crisis that followed the Yom Kippur War (October 1973) was triggered by OPEC which broke the embargo against the US and Western countries, causing a fourfold increase in oil prices, lasting five months, beginning on October 17, 1973, and ending on March 18, 1974. OPEC countries then agreed, on January 7, 1975, to raise the price of crude oil by 10%. At that time, OPEC countries - including many who just nationalized their oil industry - joined the call for a New International Economic Order to be initiated by a coalition of primary producers. Concluding the first OPEC Summit in Algeria they called for stable and fair commodity prices, international food and agriculture programs, technology transfer from North to South, and democratization of the economic system. But industrial nations are quickly starting to look for OPEC oil substitutes, with oil companies investing most of their research capital in the US and European countries or other, politically confident countries. OPEC lost more of its influence on world oil prices.

The second oil crisis came after the 1979 Iranian Revolution. Then, the 1982 Latin American debt crisis exploded in Mexico first, then Argentina and Brazil, proved unable to repay their debts, jeopardize the existence of the international economic system.

The 1990s are characterized by the prevalence of Washington's consensus on neoliberal policies, "structural adjustment" and "shock therapy" for former communist countries.

African Decolonization

The decolonization of North Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa took place in the mid to late 1950s, very suddenly, with little preparation. There is widespread unrest and organized insurgency, especially in Algeria France, Portuguese Angola, Belgian Congo, and Kenya of England.

In 1945, Africa had four independent states - Egypt, Ethiopia, Liberia and South Africa.

After the defeat of Italy in World War II, France and England occupied the former Italian colony. Libya became an independent kingdom in 1951. Eritrea joined Ethiopia in 1952. Italian Somaliland was ruled by Britain, and by Italy after 1954, until independence in 1960.

In 1977, European colonial rule on the African continent was over. Most African island countries have also been independent, though RÃƒÆ'Ã‚ Ã‚ union and Mayotte remain part of France. But the black majority in Rhodesia and South Africa lost their rights until 1980 in Rhodesia, which became Zimbabwe that year, and until 1994 in South Africa. Namibia, the last UN Trust Area in Africa, became independent from South Africa in 1990.

The most independent African nation was within the former colonial border. But Morocco combines French Morocco with Spanish Morocco, and Somalia is formed from the merger of Somaliland Britain and Italian Somaliland. Eritrea joined Ethiopia in 1952, but became an independent state in 1993.

Most African nations are independent as republics. Morocco, Lesotho, and Swaziland remained a monarchy under the dynasty that preceded colonial rule. Egypt and Libya gained independence as a monarchy, but the two kingdoms of the country were later overthrown, and they became republics.

African countries work together on various multi-state associations. The African Union covers all 55 African countries. There are several regional associations of countries, including the East African Community, the South African Development Community, and the Economic Community of West African States, some of which have overlapping memberships.

Decolonization in America after 1945

Ãƒ, English: Newfoundland (formerly an independent territory but under British rule as early as 1934) (1949, union with Canada); Jamaica (1962); Trinidad and Tobago (1962); Barbados (1962); Guyana (1966); Bahamas (1973): Grenada (1974); Dominica (1978); Saint Lucia (1979); St. Vincent and the Grenadines (1979); Antigua and Barbuda (1981); Belize (1981); Saint Kitts and Nevis (1983).
Ãƒ, Netherlands: Netherlands Antilles, Suriname (1954, both became constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands).
Ãƒ, Denmark: Greenland (1979, being a constituent country of the Danish Kingdom).

Asian Decolonization

Japan expanded its occupation of the territory of China during the 1930s, and occupied Southeast Asia during World War II. After the war, the Japanese colonial empire was dissolved, and the national independence movement rejected the reinstatement of colonial control by European countries and the United States.

The Republic of China regains control of the occupied territories of Japan in Manchuria and eastern China, as well as Taiwan. Only Hong Kong and Macau are kept out of control.

Allied forces divided Korea into two occupation zones, which became the states of North Korea and South Korea. The Philippines became independent from the US in 1946.

The Dutch recognized Indonesian independence in 1949, after four years of independence struggle. Indonesia annexed Netherlands New Guinea in 1963, and Portuguese Timor in 1975. In 2002, the former Portuguese Timor became independent as East Timor.

The following list shows colonial powers after the end of hostilities in 1945, and their colonial or administrative property. The year of decolonization is given chronologically in parentheses.

Ãƒ, English: Transjordan (1946), British India and Pakistan (1947); British Mandate in Palestine, Burma, Sri Lanka and Ceylon (1948); Malaya England and Ghana (1957); Nigeria (1960); Kuwait, Sierra Leone, and Tanganyika (1961); Uganda (1962); The Kingdom of Sarawak, North Kalimantan, Kenya and Singapore (1963); Maldives (1965); Trucial Country (1971); Zimbabwe (1980); Brunei (1984); Hong Kong (1997).
Ãƒ, French: French India (1954) and Indochina (comprising Vietnamese (1945), Cambodia (1953), and Laos (1953); French French colonies, including Cameroon, Central African Republic , Chad, Gabon, Ivory Coast, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, and Upper Volta (1960), Algeria (1962), and Territories of Far People and Issas (1977).
Ãƒ, Portugal: Portuguese India (1961); Guinea-Bissau (1974); Mozambique, Cape Verde, Sao Tome, Angola, Portuguese Timor (1975); Macau (1999).
Ãƒ, United States: Philippines (1946)
Ãƒ, Dutch: Dutch East Indies (1949); Dutch New Guinea (1962, incorporated into Indonesia).
Ãƒ, Belgium: Zaire (1960); Rwanda (1962).

Decolonization in Europe

Italy occupied the Dodecanese islands in 1912, but the Italian occupation ended after World War II, and the islands were integrated into Greece. The British government ended up in Cyprus in 1960, and Malta in 1964, and the two islands became independent republics.

Soviet control of non-Russian member republics weakened rapidly as the democratization movement and self-government gained power during 1990 and 1991. The Soviet coup attempt in August 1991 began the break-up of the Soviet Union, which officially ends in December. 26, 1991. The Soviet republic became a sovereign state - Armenia, Azerbaijan, Byelorussia (later Belarus), Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan. Historian Robert Daniels says, "The special dimension afforded by the anti-Communist revolution with some of their predecessors is decolonization." Moscow's policy has long pursued ethnic Russians in non-Russian republics. After independence, minority rights for Russian speakers have been a problem; see the Russians in the Baltic countries.

What were the various approaches to decolonization?

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Challenges

The general challenges of decolonization include state development, nation building, and economic development.

State-building

After independence, new states need to establish or strengthen sovereign state institutions - government, law, military, schools, administrative systems, and so on. The number of self-government granted prior to independence, and the aid of colonial powers and/or international organizations after independence, varied greatly between colonial powers, and between individual colonies.

Except for some absolute monarchies, most post-colonial states are constitutional republics or monarchies. These new countries should draft constitutions, electoral systems, and other democratic representation bodies.

Nation development

The nation's development is the process of creating a sense of identification with, and loyalty to, the state. The nation's development project seeks to replace loyalty to old colonial forces, and/or tribal or regional allegiance, with loyalty to the new state. The nation's development elements include creating and promoting country symbols such as flags and national anthems, monuments, official history, national sports teams, codifying one or more native official languages, and changing the names of colonial places with local ones. Development of the nation after independence often continues the work initiated by the independence movement during the colonial period.

Population released

Decolonization is not easy in colonies where large populations of settlers live, especially if they have existed for generations. These populations, in general, are often discharged, often losing many properties. For example, the decolonization of Algeria by France is very uncomfortable because of the large European Jewish population and Sephardik (see also pied noir ), most of whom were evacuated to France when Algeria became independent. In Zimbabwe, the former Rhodesia, president of Robert Mugabe, began in the 1990s, targeting white African farmers and forcibly confiscating their property. Other ethnic minorities that are also products of colonialism can cause problems as well. A large Indian community lives in Uganda - as in most of East Africa - as a result of British colonial rule in both India and East Africa. Because many Indians have great wealth, Idi Amin drives them out for domestic political gain. In some cases decolonization is almost impossible or impossible due to the importance of the settler population or where the indigenous population is now in a minority; such as the case of the British population in the Cayman Islands or the European population of the United States.

Economic development

Newly independent countries should also develop independent economic institutions - national currencies, banks, companies, regulations, tax systems, etc.

Many colonies serve as resource colonies that produce raw materials and agricultural products, and as captive markets for goods produced in the colonizing state. Many decolonized countries create programs to promote industrialization. Some industries and infrastructure are nationalized, and some are involved in land reforms to redistribute land to individual farmers or create collective farms.

Some decolonized countries maintain strong economic relations with former colonial powers. CFA Franc is a currency that is shared by 14 countries in West and Central Africa, mostly former French colonies. CFA Franc is guaranteed by the French treasury.

After independence, many countries created regional economic associations to promote trade and economic development among neighboring countries, including the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and the Gulf Cooperation Council.

Effects on colonizer

John Kenneth Galbraith argues that post-World War II decolonization occurs for economic reasons. In Travel Through Economic Time , he writes:

"The economic welfare machinery is now within and among the industrialized countries.The growth of the domestic economy - as it is now measured and much talked about - becomes more important than the former colonial trade... The economic effects in the United States from granting independence to the Philippines are not too conspicuous, in part because of the Bell Trade Act, which allowed the American monopoly in the Philippine economy. The advancement of India and Pakistan made little economic difference in Britain, calculating that the economic effects of the massive loss of the Dutch empire in Indonesia were compensated by several years or more postwar economic growth in The end of the colonial era is celebrated in history books as a national victory of aspirations in former colonies and a benign sense of goodness on the part of colonial power. Lurking below, as is often the case, is a strong current of economic interest - or I in this case, not interested. "

In general, the colonized release causes little economic loss to the invaders. Part of the reason for this is that large costs are eliminated while the main benefits are gained by alternative means. Decolonization allows the colonists to be irresponsible of being colonized. The occupiers no longer have any obligation, financial or other burdens, to their colonies. However, the invaders continue to be able to obtain cheap goods and labor and economic benefits (see Suez Channel Crisis) from former colonies. Financial, political and military pressures can still be used to achieve the goals desired by the occupation. Thus decolonization allows the goals of colonization to be largely accomplished, but without its burden.

Effects on former colonies

New Urban Collective | Decolonizing the University Conference ...

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Post-colonial organization

Due to the same history and culture, the former colonial powers created a looser institution linked to their former colony. Membership is voluntary, and in some cases can be revoked if member states lose some objective criteria (usually a requirement for democratic governance). Organizations serve cultural, economic, and political objectives among the countries concerned, although no organization is politically outstanding as an entity in its own right.

CHamoru-Language Panel on Decolonization | Mumun Linahyan

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Killer of anti-colonial leader

Incomplete list of killed leaders will include:

Tiradentes was a prominent member of the Brazilian sedition movement known as InconfidÃƒÆ'Ã‚Âªncia Mineira, against the Portuguese Empire. He fought for an independent republic of Brazil.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, nonviolent leader of the Indian independence movement murdered in 1948 by Nathuram Godse.
Ruben Um NyobÃƒ Â© Ã… Â©, the leader of the Cameroon People's Union (UPC), was killed by the French SDECE on September 13, 1958. There is no apparent reason ever to be ensured of the mysterious accident. Murder has been alleged.
BarthÃƒÆ' Ã‚ Â© lemy Boganda, leader of the Central African Republic nationalist movement, who died in a plane crash on March 29, 1959, eight days before the last colonial election.
FÃƒ Â© Ã… Â© lix-Roland MoumiÃƒÆ'Ã‚ Â©, successor of Ruben Um Nyobe at the head of the Cameroon People's Union, was assassinated in Geneva in 1960 by SDECE (French secret service).
Patrice Lumumba, the first Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of Congo, was assassinated on January 17, 1961.
Burundi Nationalist Louis Rwagasore was assassinated on October 13, 1961, while Pierre Ngendandumwe, Burundi's first Hutu prime minister, was also assassinated on January 15, 1965.
Sylvanus Olympio, Togo's first president, was assassinated on 13 January 1963.
Mehdi Ben Barka, leader of the National Union of Popular Forces of Morocco (UNPF) and Tricontinental Conference, which was supposed to be prepared in 1966 in Havana, his first meeting collected a national liberation movement from all continents - in relation to the Non-Movement Signed but the Tricontinal Conference collected the Non-Aligned Liberation Movement for most states - "disappeared" in Paris in 1965, allegedly by Moroccan agents and French police.
Nigerian leader Ahmadu Bello was assassinated in January 1966 during a coup that ousted Nigeria's post-independence government.
Eduardo Mondlane, leader of FRELIMO and father of Mozambique independence, was assassinated in 1969. Both Portuguese intelligence or the Portuguese secret police PIDE/DGS and FRELIMO elements, have been accused of killing Mondlane.
Mohamed Bassiri, the leader of the Sahrawi Liberation Movement of Saguia el Hamra and Wadi el Dhahab "disappeared" in El AaiÃƒÆ'Ã‚Âºn in 1970, allegedly by the Spanish Legion.
AmÃƒÆ'lcar Cabral was killed on January 20, 1973 by PAIGC rival InocÃƒÆ'Ã‚Âªncio Kani, with the help of a Portuguese agent operating at PAIGC.

FACTORS FOR DECOLONIZATION OF BRITISH IN WEST AFRICA ~ TOP 5 RESOURCES

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Timeline for independence

This list includes previously non-self-governing territories, such as colonies, protectorates, condoms, and leased areas. Changes in the status of autonomy leading to and after independence are not registered, and some independence dates are debatable. For details, see each national history.

18th century to World War I

Interwar Period

Cold War

Post-Cold War Era

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References

World History- Decolonization problems in Malay Peninsula

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Sabtu, 07 Juli 2018