Internet access

src: financialtribune.com

Internet access is the ability of individuals and organizations to connect to the Internet using computer terminals, computers, and other devices; and to access services such as email and the World Wide Web. Various technologies, at various speeds have been used by Internet service providers (ISPs) to provide these services.

Internet access was once scarce, but has grown tremendously. In 1995, only 0.04 percent of the world's population had access, with more than half of those living in the United States, and consumer use via dial-up. In the first decade of the 21st century, many consumers in developed countries are using faster broadband technology, and by 2014, 41 percent of the world's population has access, broadband is almost everywhere around the world, and the average global connection speed exceeds 1 Mbit/st..

Video Internet access

History

The Internet was developed from the ARPANET, funded by the US government to support projects within the government and at universities and research laboratories in the US - but evolves over time to include most of the world's major universities and research arm of many technology companies. Use by a wider audience only came in 1995 when restrictions on the use of the Internet to bring commercial traffic were lifted.

In the early to mid-1980s, most Internet access came from personal computers and workstations connected directly to the local area network or from dial-up connections using modems and analog telephone lines. LANs typically operate at 10 Mbit/s, while data-rate modems grew from 1200 bits/s in the early 1980s, to 56 kbit/s in the late 1990s. Initially, dial-up connections are made from terminals or computers that run terminal emulation software to the terminal server on the LAN. This dial-up connection does not support the use of Internet protocol as a whole and only provide terminal for host connection. The introduction of a network access server that supports Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and then the point-to-point (PPP) protocol extends Internet protocols and makes various Internet services available to dial-up users; though more slowly, because lower data rates are available using dial-up.

Broadband Internet access, often shortened to broadband only, is defined simply as "Internet access is always on, and faster than traditional dial-up access" and also includes a wide range of technologies. Broadband connections are typically created using computers built into Ethernet networking capabilities, or by using an NIC expansion card.

Most broadband services provide continuous "always" connections; no dial-in process is required, and it does not interfere with the use of telephone line noise. Broadband provides better access to Internet services such as:

• World faster browsing
• Download documents, photos, videos, and other large files faster
• Telephony, radio, television, and videoconferencing
• Virtual private network and remote system administration
• Online games, especially intensive intensive role-playing games

In the 1990s, the National Information Infrastructure initiative in the US made broadband Internet access a public policy issue. In 2000, most Internet access to homes was provided using dial-up, while many businesses and schools used broadband connections. In 2000 there were fewer than 150 million dial-up subscriptions in 34 OECD countries and less than 20 million broadband subscriptions. In 2004, broadband has grown and dial-up has decreased so the number of subscriptions is roughly the same at 130 million each. In 2010, in OECD countries, over 90% of Internet access subscribed using broadband, broadband has grown to more than 300 million subscriptions, and dial-up subscriptions have dropped to less than 30 million.

The most widely used broadband technology is ADSL and cable Internet access. New technologies include VDSL and fiber optics extended closer to customers in both telephone and plant cables. Fiber-optic communications, while only recently used in place and for pavement schemes, have played an important role in enabling broadband Internet access by making transmitting information at very high data rates at far more cost-effective distance than wire technology copper.

In areas not served by ADSL or cable, some community and local government organizations are installing Wi-Fi networks. Wireless and satellite Internet is often used in rural, backward, or other areas where it is difficult to serve where cable Internet is not available.

New technologies used for fixed (stationary) and mobile broadband access include WiMAX, LTE and fixed wireless, for example, Motorola Canopy.

Beginning around 2006, mobile broadband access is increasingly available at the consumer level using "3G" and "4G" technologies such as HSPA, EV-DO, HSPA, and LTE.

Maps Internet access

Availability

In addition to access from home, school, and workplace Internet access may be available from public places such as libraries and internet cafes, where computers with Internet connections are available. Some libraries provide stations to physically connect a user's laptop to a local area network (LAN).

Wireless Internet access points are available in public areas such as airport halls, in some cases for short standing use only. Some access points may also provide coin-operated computers. Multiple terms are used, such as "public internet kiosks", "public access terminals", and "web pay phones". Many hotels also have public terminals, usually fee-based.

Coffee shops, shopping centers and other places increasingly offer wireless access to computer networks, called hotspots, for users who carry their own wireless devices such as laptops or PDAs. This service may be free for all, free for customer only, or cost-based. A Wi-Fi hotspot need not be limited to a limited location because some combinations may include an entire campus or park, or even entire cities can be activated.

In addition, cellular broadband access enables smartphones and other digital devices to connect to the Internet from any location where mobile phone calls can be made, depending on the capabilities of the mobile network.

Speed ​​

The bit rate for dial-up modems ranged from as small as 110 bits/s in the late 1950s, to a maximum of 33-64 kbit/s (V.90 and V.92) in the late 1990s. Dial-up connections generally require the use of dedicated telephone lines. Data compression can increase the effective bit rate for a dial-up modem connection from 220 (V.42bis) to 320 (V.44) kbit/s. However, the effectiveness of data compression varies considerably, depending on the type of data sent, the condition of the telephone line, and a number of other factors. In fact, the overall data rate rarely exceeds 150 kbit/s.

Broadband technology provides a much higher bit rate than dial-up, generally without disrupting the use of a normal telephone. Multiple levels of minimum data and maximum latency have been used in broadband definitions, ranging from 64 kbit/s to 4.0 Mbit/s. In 1988, the CCITT standard body defines "broadband services" because it requires a transmission line capable of supporting bit rates greater than the main rates ranging from about 1.5 to 2 Mbit/s. The 2006 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) report defines broadband as having data transfer rate downloads equal to or faster than 256 kbit/s. And by 2015 the US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) defines "Basic Broadband" as a data transfer speed of at least 25 Mbit/s downstream (from Internet to user computer) and 3 Mbit/s upstream (from user's computer to Internet). The trend is to raise the threshold of broadband definitions as higher level data services become available.

Higher data rate dial-up modems and many "asymmetric" broadband services - support much higher data rates to download (towards the user) than to upload (to the Internet).

Data rates, including those provided in this article, are usually specified and advertised in terms of maximum or peak download rates. In practice, this maximum data rate is not always available to customers. The actual end-to-end data rate may be lower due to a number of factors. At the end of June 2016, internet connection speeds averaged about 6 Mbit/s globally. The quality of physical connections may vary with distance and for wireless access with terrain, weather, building construction, antenna placement, and interference from other radio sources. Network congestion may exist at points anywhere on the path from the end user to the remote server or the service used and not just the first or last link that provides Internet access to the end user.

Network congestion

Users can share access through common network infrastructure. Because most users do not use their full connection capacity all the time, this aggregation strategy (known as service spent) usually works well and users can burst into their full data speed for at least a short period. However, the sharing of high-quality peer-to-peer (P2P) files and high-quality streaming videos may require high data rates for long periods of time, violating these assumptions and may cause the service to be over-demand, resulting in congestion and poor performance. The TCP protocol includes a flow control mechanism that automatically chokes back the bandwidth used during periods of network congestion. This is fair in the sense that all users who experience congestion receive less bandwidth, but this can be frustrating for customers and a big problem for ISPs. In some cases, the amount of bandwidth that is actually available can fall below the threshold required to support certain services such as video conferencing or live video streaming-effectively making the service unavailable.

When traffic is very heavy, ISPs can intentionally strangle back the available bandwidth for the user class or for a particular service. This is known as traffic shaping and careful use can ensure better service quality for time critical services even on very busy networks. However, excessive use can cause concerns about network fairness and neutrality or even censorship costs, when some types of traffic are completely or completely blocked.

Out

Internet outages or blackouts can be caused by local signal interruptions. Submarine communication cable interference may cause power outages or slowdown in large areas, such as the disruption of submarine cables in 2008. Less developed countries are more vulnerable due to the small number of high capacity links. The ground cables are also vulnerable, as in 2011 when a woman who dug for scrap metal decides the most connectivity for the Armenian nation. Internet outages affecting virtually all countries can be achieved by the government as a form of Internet censorship, as in the Internet blockage in Egypt, where about 93% of networks have no access in 2011 in an effort to stop the mobilization of anti-government protests..

On April 25, 1997, due to a combination of human error and software bugs, the wrong routing table on the MAI Network Service was deployed across the entire backbone router and caused massive disruption to Internet traffic for several hours.

src: www.radianttechno.com

Technology

When the Internet is accessed using a modem, digital data is converted to analogue for transmission over analog networks such as telephone networks and cables. Computers or other devices accessing the Internet will connect directly to modems that communicate with Internet service providers (ISPs) or modem Internet connections will be shared via a Local Area Network (LAN) that provides access in restricted areas such as home, school, computer lab, or office building.

Although the connection to the LAN can provide very high data rate within the LAN, the speed of Internet access is actually limited by the upstream link to the ISP. LAN can be either wired or wireless. Ethernet over twisted pair cables and Wi-Fi are two of the most common technologies used to build LANs today, but ARCNET, Token Ring, Localtalk, FDDI, and other technologies were used in the past.

Ethernet is the default name of IEEE 802.3 for physical LAN communication and Wi-Fi is the trade name for wireless local area network (WLAN) that uses one of the IEEE 802.11 standards. Ethernet cable connected to each other via switch & amp; router. Wi-Fi networks are built using one or more wireless antennas called access points.

Many "modems" provide additional functionality to host LANs so that most of the current Internet access is via LAN, often very small LANs with only one or two devices installed. And while LAN is an important form of Internet access, it raises the question of how and at what data rate the LAN itself connects to the entire global Internet. The technology described below is used to make this connection.

Embedded broadband access

The term broadband includes a variety of technologies, all of which provide high-level data access to the Internet. The following technologies use different cables or cables with wireless broadband described later.

Dial-up access

Dial-up Internet access uses a modem and phone calls placed through a public switched telephone network (PSTN) to connect to a collection of modems operated by the ISP. The modem converts the computer's digital signal into an analog signal that runs over the local line of the telephone line until it reaches the switching facility of the telephone company or the central office (CO) where it is diverted to another telephone line connected to another modem on the remote edge. connection.

Operating on a single channel, dial-up connections monopolize phone lines and is one of the slowest methods of accessing the Internet. Dial-up is often the only form of Internet access available in rural areas because it does not require new infrastructure beyond existing telephone networks, to connect to the Internet. Typically, dial-up connections do not exceed speeds of 56 kbit/s, as they are primarily made using modems that operate at a maximum data rate of 56 kbit/s downstream and 34 or 48 kbit/s upstream.

Multilink dial-up

Multilink dial-up provides increased bandwidth by connecting multiple dial-up connections and accessing them as single data channels. Two or more modems, phone lines and dial-up accounts are required, and ISPs support multilinking - and of course every data and data connection is also duplicated. This reverse multiplexing option is briefly popular with some high-end users before ISDN, DSL and other technologies become available. Diamond and other vendors create custom modems to support multilinking.

Integrated Services Digital Network

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a redirected telephone service capable of transporting voice and digital data, is one of the oldest Internet access methods. ISDN has been used for voice, video conferencing, and broadband data applications. ISDN is very popular in Europe, but less common in North America. Its use peaked in the late 1990s before the availability of DSL technology and cable modems.

The ISDN base rate, known as ISDN-BRI, has two 64 kbit/s "carrier" or "B" channels. This channel can be used separately for voice or data calls or assembled together to provide 128 kbit/s service. Some ISDN-BRI lines can be assembled together to provide data rates above 128 kbit/s. The ISDN Primary Level, known as ISDN-PRI, has 23 carrier channels (64 kbit/s each) for a combined data rate of 1.5 Mbit/s (US standards). The ISDN E1 line (European standard) has 30 carrier channels and a combined data rate of 1.9 Mbit/s.

Leased lines

Leased lines are special channels used primarily by ISPs, businesses, and other large enterprises to connect LAN and campus networks to the Internet using public telephony network infrastructure or other existing providers. Delivered using wires, optical fibers and radios, leased channels are used to provide direct Internet access as well as building blocks from which some other form of Internet access is made.

The T-carrier technology dates from 1957 and provides data rates ranging from 56 and 64 kbit/s (DS0) to 1.5 Mbit/s (DS1 or T1), for 45 Mbit/s (DS3 or T3). The T1 channel carries 24 voice or data channels (24 DS0), so customers can use multiple channels for data and more for voice traffic or use all 24 channels to clear channel data. A DS3 (T3) line carries 28 DS1 (T1) channels. The Fractional T1 line is also available in DS0 multiples to provide data rates between 56 and 1500 kbit/s . T-carrier lines require special termination equipment that can be separated from or integrated into routers or switches and which can be purchased or rented from ISPs. In Japan the equivalent standard is J1/J3. In Europe, a slightly different standard, E-carrier, provides 32 user channels ( 64Ã, kbit/s ) on E1 ( 2.0Ã, Mbit/s ) and 512 channels user or 16 E1 on E3 ( 34,4 Mbit/s ).

Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET, in the US and Canada) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH, worldwide) is a standard multiplexing protocol used to carry high-level digital data bits via fiber optics using a highly coherent or laser light from a light-emitting diode (LED). At lower transmission rate data can also be transferred through the electrical interface. The basic framing unit is OC-3c (optical) or STS-3c (electrical) carrying 155,520 Mbit/s . So the OC-3c will carry three payloads of OC-1 (51.84 Mbit/s) each of which has sufficient capacity to include the full DS3. The higher data rates delivered in the OC-3c multiples of the four provide OC-12c ( 622.080 Mbit/s ), OC-48c ( 2,488 Gbit/s ), OC - 192c ( 9.953Ã, Gbit/s ), and OC-768c (39.813 Gbit/s). The "c" at the end of the OC label stands for "concatenated" and shows a single data stream rather than multiple multiplexed data streams.

Ethernet standards 1, 10, 40, and 100 gigabit (GbE, 10 GbE, 40/100 GbE) IEEE (802.3) allows digital data to be transmitted over copper cables at distances up to 100 m and more than optical fibers at distances up to 40Ã , Km .

Wired Internet access

Internet cable provides access using a cable modem on a hybrid fiber cable originally developed to carry television signals. Both fiber-optic or coaxial copper cables can connect a node to a customer's location on a connection known as a cable drop. In the cable modem termination system, all the nodes for cable customers in the environment connected to the cable company headquarters, known as "head end". Cable companies then connect to the Internet using a variety of ways - usually fiber optic cables or digital satellites and microwave transmissions. Like DSL, cable broadband provides continuous connection with ISP.

Downstream, direction toward user, bit rate can reach 400 Mbit/s for business connection, and 320 Mbit/s for residential service in some countries. Upstream traffic, originating from users, ranges from 384 kbit/sec to more than 20 Mbit/s. Broadband cable access tends to serve fewer business customers because existing cable television networks tend to serve residential buildings and commercial buildings do not always include cables for coaxial cable networks. In addition, because broadband cable subscribers share the same local path, communications can be intercepted by neighboring customers. Cable networks regularly provide encryption schemes for travel data to and from customers, but this scheme can be thwarted.

​​â € <â €

The Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) service provides connections to the Internet over the telephone network. Unlike dial-up, DSL can operate using a single phone line without preventing the normal use of telephone lines for voice phone calls. DSL uses high frequency, while low frequency (audible) of the line is left free for regular telephone communication. The frequency band is then separated by a filter installed at the customer's premises.

DSL originally stood for "digital subscriber loop". In telecommunications marketing, the term digital subscriber channel is widely understood as Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), the most frequently installed DSL variation. Data throughput of consumer DSL services typically range from 256 Kbit/s up to 20 Mbit/s direction to subscriber (downstream), depending on DSL technology, line conditions, and service level implementation. In ADSL, the data throughput in the upstream direction, (ie in the direction to the service provider) is lower than the downstream direction (ie to the customer), then the asymmetric designation. With a symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL), the downstream and upstream data levels are the same.

The very high-level-bit-rate digital subscriber line (VDSL or VHDSL, ITU G.993.1) is a standard digital subscriber line (DSL) approved in 2001 that provides data rates up to 52 Mbit/s downstream and 16 Mbit/s upstream of copper wires and up to 85 Mbit/s and upstream on coaxial cable. VDSL is capable of supporting applications such as high definition television, as well as voice over IP service and general Internet access, through a single physical connection.

VDSL2 (ITU-T G.993.2) is a second generation version and VDSL enhancement. Approved in February 2006, it was able to provide data rates exceeding 100 Mbit/sec at the same time both upstream and downstream. However, the maximum data rate is achieved in the range of about 300 meters and the performance decreases as distance and the loop attenuation increases.

DSL Ring

DSL Rings (DSLR) or Bonded DSL Rings is a ring topology that uses DSL technology over existing copper telephone lines to provide data rates of up to 400 Mbit/s.

Fiber to home

Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) is a member of the Fiber-to-the-x (FTTx) family that includes Fiber-to-the-building or basement (FTTB), Fiber-to-the-premise (FTTP) ), Fiber-to-the-desk (FTTD), Fiber-to-the-curb (FTTC), and Fiber-to-the-node (FTTN). This method all brings data closer to the end user on the optical fiber. The difference between most methods has to do with how close to the end user the delivery is on the coming fiber. All delivery methods are similar to fiber-coaxial hybrid systems (HFCs) used to provide wired Internet access.

The use of fiber optics offers much higher data rates over a relatively longer distance. Most internet backbone TVs and high capacity cables already use fiber optic technology, with data switching to other technologies (DSL, cable, POTS) for final delivery to customers.

Australia began launching National Broadband Networks across the country using fiber optic cables up to 93 percent of Australian homes, schools, and businesses. The project was abandoned by the next LNP government, which supported the hybrid FTTN design, which turned out to be more expensive and caused delays. Similar efforts are being made in Italy, Canada, India, and many other countries (see Fiber to place by country).

Power-line internet

Power-line Internet, also known as Broadband over power lines (BPL), carries Internet data on conductors that are also used for power transmission. Due to the extensive infrastructure of the power grid, this technology can provide rural and low-income people access to the Internet at little cost in the case of new transmission equipment, cables, or cables. Data rates are not symmetrical and generally range from 256 kbit/second to 2.7 Mbit/s.

Because this system uses part of the radio spectrum allocated to other airborne communication services, interference between services is a limiting factor in the introduction of the power-line Internet system. The IEEE P1901 standard specifies that all power line protocols must detect existing usage and not interfere with it.

Internet Power-line has grown faster in Europe than in the US due to historical differences in power system design philosophy. The data signal can not pass the step-down transformer used so that the repeater must be installed on each transformer. In the US, the transformer serves a small group from one to several homes. In Europe, it is more common for somewhat larger transformers to serve groups larger than 10 to 100 homes. Thus, a typical US city needs a sequence of more repeaters than in comparable European cities.

ATM and Frame Relay

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Frame Relay are broad network standards that can be used to provide Internet access directly or as building blocks of other access technologies. For example, many DSL implementations use ATM layers above the low-level bitstream layer to allow a number of different technologies over the same link. The customer's LAN is usually connected to ATM switches or Frame Relay nodes using leased paths at different levels of data.

Although still widely used, with the advent of Ethernet over fiber optics, MPLS, VPN and broadband services such as cable modems and DSL, ATM and Frame Relay no longer play the crucial role they once did.

Wireless broadband access

Wireless broadband is used to provide permanent and mobile Internet access with the following technologies.

Satellite broadband

Satellite Internet access provides permanent, portable, and mobile Internet access. Data rates range from 2 kbit/s to 1 Gbit/s and from 2 kbit/s to 10 Mbit/s. In the northern hemisphere, satellite antenna antennas require a clear line of sight to the southern sky, due to the position of the equator of all geostationary satellites. In the southern hemisphere, the situation is reversed, and the dish is heading north. The service can be affected by moisture, rain, and snow (known as faded rain). The system requires carefully directed antennas.

The satellites in geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) operate at a fixed position of 35,786 km (22,236 miles) above the Earth's equator. At the speed of light (about 300,000 km/second or 186,000 miles per second), it takes a quarter of a second for the radio signal to travel from Earth to satellite and back. When switching and other routing delays are added and duplicate delays to allow full round-trip transmission, the total delay can be 0.75 to 1.25 seconds. This latency is large when compared to other forms of Internet access with typical latency ranging from 0.015 to 0.2 seconds. Long latency negatively impacts some applications that require real-time response, especially online games, voice over IP, and remote control devices. TCP tuning and TCP acceleration techniques can alleviate some of these problems. GEO satellites do not cover the Earth's polar regions. HughesNet, Exede, AT & amp; T and Dish Network have a GEO system.

Satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO, below 2000 km or 1243 miles) and medium Earth orbit (MEO, between 2000 and 35,786 km or 1,243 and 22,236 miles) are less common, operate at lower altitudes, and do not remain in their position on Earth. Lower altitudes allow lower latency and make real-time interactive Internet applications more feasible. LEO systems include Globalstar and Iridium. The O3b Satellite Constellation is a proposed MEO system with 125 ms latency. COMMStellation (TM) is a LEO system, scheduled for launch in 2015, which is expected to have a latency of just 7ms.

Mobile broadband

Mobile broadband is a marketing term for wireless Internet access delivered via cell phone towers to computers, mobile phones (called "cell phones" in North and South Africa, and "mobile phones" in Asia), and other digital devices that use portable modems. Some cellular services allow more than one device to connect to the Internet using a single cellular connection using a process called tethering. Modems can be built into laptop computers, tablets, phones, and other devices, added to multiple devices using a PC card, USB modem, and USB stick or dongle, or a separate wireless modem can be used.

New mobile technology and infrastructure are introduced on a regular basis and generally involve changes in the nature of services, incompatible backward transmission technology, higher peak data rates, new frequency bands, wider channel frequency bandwidth in Hertz becoming available. This transition is called a generation. The first mobile data service is available for second generation (2G).

Download (to user) and upload (to the Internet) the data rate given above is the maximum or peak rate and the end user will usually experience a lower data rate.

WiMAX was originally developed to provide fixed wireless services with wireless mobility added in 2005. CDPD, CDMA2000 EV-DO, and MBWA are no longer actively developed.

In 2011, 90% of the world's population lives in areas with 2G coverage, while 45% live in areas with coverage of 2G and 3G.

WiMAX

Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) is a series of interoperable implementations of the standard family of IEEE 802.16 wireless networks certified by the WiMAX Forum. WiMAX enables "delivery of last mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL". The original IEEE 802.16 standard, now called "Fixed WiMAX", was published in 2001 and provides 30 to 40 megabits per second of data rate. Mobility support was added in 2005. The 2011 update provides data rates up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations. WiMax offers a metropolitan area network with a signal radius of about 50 km (30 miles), far beyond the 30-meter (100-feet) wireless range of a conventional Wi-Fi (LAN) local area network. WiMAX signals also penetrate the walls of buildings much more effectively than Wi-Fi.

Wireless ISP

Wireless Internet service providers (WISP) operate independently from mobile phone operators. WISPs typically use low-cost IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi radio systems to connect remote locations with long distances (Wi-Fi Range), but can use higher-powered radio communications systems as well.

Traditional 802.11a/b/g/n/ac is an unlicensed omnidirectional service designed to reach between 100 and 150 m (300 to 500 feet). By focusing radio signals using directional antennas (if permitted by regulation), 802.11 can operate reliably over several miles (miles), although line-of-sight requirements of technology inhibit connectivity in areas with hilly or very dry terrain. In addition, compared to wired connectivity, there are security risks (unless a strong security protocol is enabled); data rates are usually slower (2 to 50 times slower); and networks may become less stable, due to interference from other wireless devices and networks, weather and line-of-sight issues.

With the increasing popularity of unrelated consumer devices operating on the same 2.4 GHz band, many providers have migrated to 5MHz ISM bands. If the service provider holds the required spectrum license, it can also reconfigure various brands of Wi-Fi rack hardware to operate on its own band instead of solid ones without permission. Using higher frequencies brings many advantages:

• normally the regulator body allows more power and uses a better (antenna-),
• there is more bandwidth to share, allowing better throughput and increasing coexistence,
• there are fewer consumer devices operating above 5 GHz than 2.4 GHz, so less interference is present,
• Shorter wavelengths spread much worse through walls and other structures, resulting in fewer leakage outside the consumer's home.

Exclusive technologies like Motorola Canopy & amp; Utilization can be used by WISP to offer wireless access to rural and other markets that are difficult to reach using Wi-Fi or WiMAX. There are a number of companies that provide this service.

Local Multipoint Distribution Service

Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS) is a broadband wireless access technology that uses microwave signals operating between 26 GHz and 29 GHz. Originally designed for digital television transmission (DTV), it is understood as a wireless, point-to-multipoint technology for utilization in the last mile. Data rates range from 64 kbit/s to 155 Mbit/s. Distance is usually limited to about 1.5 miles (2.4 km), but links up to 5 miles (8 km) from the base station is possible under some circumstances.

LMDS has exceeded its technological and commercial potential with LTE and WiMAX standards.

Non-commercial alternatives to using Internet services

Grassroots wireless network movement

Applying multiple nearby Wi-Fi access points is sometimes used to create a wireless network across cities. Usually ordered by local municipalities from commercial WISP.

Grassroots efforts have also led to wireless community networks being used in many countries, both developing and emerging. Wireless installations-rural ISPs are usually not commercial and are otherwise patches of systems built by antenna-mounting hobbyists in poles and radio towers, agricultural storage silos, very tall trees, or any other high-end objects available.

If the radio spectrum regulation is not community-friendly, the channel is crowded or if the equipment can not be provided by the locals, free space optical communications can also be used in the same way for point-to-point transmission in the air (not optical fiber cables).

Package radio

Packet radio connects a computer or an entire network operated by amateur radio with the option to access the Internet. Note that in compliance with the regulatory rules outlined in the human rights license, Internet and email access should be closely linked to hardware amateur activity.

Sneakernet

The term, playing tongue-in-cheek on the net (work) as in Internet or Ethernet , refers to the use of sneakers as a transport mechanism for data.

For those who do not have access to or can not afford broadband at home, download large files and disseminate information done with transmissions through a network of workplaces or libraries, taken home and shared with neighbors by sneakernet.

There are a variety of decentralized peer-to-peer applications and tolerant delay that aim to fully automate this using available interfaces, including wireless (Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, P2P or hotspot mesh) and physically connected (USB storage, ethernet, etc..).

Sneakernets can also be used in conjunction with computer network data transfer to improve data security or overall throughput for large data usage cases. Innovation continues to this day, for example AWS recently announced Snowball, and mass data processing is also done in the same way by many research institutes and government agencies.

src: expectel.com

Pricing and expenses

Internet access is limited by the relationship between the price and available resources to spend. Regarding the latter, it is estimated that 40% of the world's population has less than US $ 20 per year available to spend on information and communication technology (ICT). In Mexico, the poorest 30% of the population calculates with an estimated US $ 35 per year (US $ 3 per month) and in Brazil, the 22% of the poorest people rely on US $ 9 per year to spend on ICT (US $ 0.75 per month). From Latin America it is known that the line between ICTs as a good requirement and ICT as a luxury item is about a "magic number" of US $ 10 per person per month, or US $ 120 per year. This is the amount of ICT spending that people value to be a basic need. The current price of internet access exceeds the resources that are widely available in many countries.

Dial-up users pay a fee for making local or long distance phone calls, usually paying a monthly subscription fee, and may incur additional per minute or on-traffic charges, and connecting deadlines by their ISPs. Although currently less common than in the past, some dial-up access is offered for "free" in return for watching banner ads as part of dial-up services. NetZero, BlueLight, Juno, Freenet (NZ), and Free-nets are examples of services that provide free access. Some Wireless community networks continue the tradition of providing free Internet access.

Broadband Internet access remains often sold under the "indefinite" price model or a flat rate, at a price determined by the maximum data rate selected by the customer, not per minute or cost based on traffic. Per minute and cost based on traffic and general traffic limits for mobile broadband Internet access.

Internet services such as Facebook, Wikipedia, and Google have built special programs to partner with mobile network operators (MNOs) to introduce the zero cost of their data volumes as a means to deliver their services more broadly in market development.

With increasing consumer demand for streaming content such as video on demand and peer-to-peer file sharing, the demand for bandwidth is increasing rapidly and for some ISP fixed rate pricing models can become unsustainable. However, with fixed costs estimated to represent 80-90% of the cost of providing broadband services, the marginal cost to bring additional traffic is low. Most ISPs do not disclose their costs, but the cost of transmitting gigabyte data in 2011 is estimated at about $ 0.03.

Some ISPs estimate that a small number of their users consume a disproportionate share of total bandwidth. In response some ISPs are considering, are experimenting with, or have implemented a price combination based on traffic, day time or "peak" and "off peak" prices, and bandwidth or traffic caps. Others claim that because the marginal cost of extra bandwidth is very small with 80 to 90 percent of fixed costs regardless of usage rate, that such measures are unnecessary or motivated by concerns other than the cost of shipping the bandwidth to the end user.

In Canada, Rogers Hi-Speed ​​â € <â €

src: www.nextonline.com.bd

Digital division

Despite its tremendous growth, Internet access is not distributed evenly within or between countries. The digital divide refers to "the gap between people with effective access to information and communication technology (ICT), and those with very limited or no access". The gap between people with Internet access and those who do not have is one of many aspects of the digital divide. Whether one has access to the Internet can rely heavily on financial status, geographical location, and government policy. "Low-income, rural, and minority residents have received special scrutiny because of the" poor "technology. "

Government policy plays a tremendous role in bringing Internet access to or limiting access to underserved groups, regions and countries. For example, in Pakistan, pursuing aggressive IT policies aimed at boosting its push for economic modernization, the number of Internet users grew from 133,900 (0.1% of the population) in 2000 to 31 million (17.6% of the population) in Pakistan. 2011. In North Korea relatively little access to the Internet due to the government's fear of political instability that may accompany the benefits of access to the global Internet. The US trade embargo is a barrier that restricts Internet access in Cuba.

Access to a computer is a dominant factor in determining the level of Internet access. In 2011, in developing countries, 25% of households own computers and 20% have Internet access, while in developed countries the numbers are 74% of households own computers and 71% have Internet access. The majority of people in developing countries do not have Internet access. [1] Approximately 4 billion people do not have Internet access. [2] When buying computers legalized in Cuba in 2007, personal computer ownership jumped (there were 630,000 computers available on the island in 2008, a 23% increase over 2007).

Internet access has changed the way in which many people think and have become an integral part of the economic, political, and social life of the community. The United Nations has recognized that providing Internet access to more people in the world will enable them to capitalize on the "political, social, economic, educational, and career opportunities" available through the Internet. Some of the 67 principles adopted at the World Summit on the Information Society organized by the United Nations in Geneva in 2003, directly address the digital divide. To promote economic development and reduction of the digital divide, the national broadband plan has been and is being developed to increase the availability of affordable high-speed Internet access worldwide.

Growth of number of users

Access to the Internet grew from around 10 million people in 1993, to nearly 40 million in 1995, to 670 million in 2002, and up to 2.7 billion in 2013. With market saturation, industrialized countries, but continues in Asia, Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean and the Middle East.

There are about 0.6 billion fixed broadband subscribers and nearly 1.2 billion mobile broadband subscribers in 2011. In developed countries people often use fixed and mobile broadband networks. In developing countries, mobile broadband is often the only access method available.

Bandwidth sharing

Traditionally the divide has been measured in terms of the number of existing subscriptions and digital devices ("owns and has no subscriptions"). Recent studies have measured the digital divide not in terms of technological devices, but in terms of the available bandwidth per individual (in kbit/s per capita). As shown in Figure on the side, the digital gap in kbit/s does not decrease monotonically, but re-opens with every new innovation. For example, "massive diffusion of the Internet and narrow mobile phones during the late 1990s" increased the digital divide, as well as "the early introduction of broadband DSL and cable modems during 2003-2004 increasing inequality". This is because new types of connectivity are never introduced instantly and uniformly to society as a whole at once, but diffuse slowly through social networks. As Figure shows, during the mid-2000s, communication capacity was more unequally distributed than in the late 1980s, when only fixed-line phones existed. The recent increase in digital equality comes from the massive diffusion of the latest digital innovations (ie fixed and mobile broadband infrastructure, such as 3G and FTTH optical fiber). As shown in Figure, Internet access in terms of bandwidth is more evenly distributed in 2014 as it was in the mid-1990s.

In the United States

In the United States, billions of dollars have been invested in efforts to narrow the digital divide and bring Internet access to more people in low-income and rural areas of the United States. The availability of the internet varies widely by states in the US. In 2011 for example, 87.1% of all New Hampshire residents live in households where the Internet is available, ranking first in the country. Meanwhile, 61.4% of all residents of Mississippi live in households where the Internet is available, ranking the last in the country. The Obama Administration continues this commitment to narrow the digital divide through the use of stimulus funds. The National Center for Educational Statistics reports that 98% of all US classroom computers have Internet access in 2008 with about one computer with Internet access available for every three students. The percentage and ratio of students to computers is the same for rural schools (98% and 1 computer for every 2.9 students).

Rural access

One of the major challenges to Internet access in general and for broadband access in particular is to provide services to potential customers in areas with low population density, such as farmers, ranchers, and small towns. In cities where the population density is high, it is easier for service providers to recover equipment costs, but any rural customer may require expensive equipment to connect. While 66% of Americans have internet connections in 2010, that figure is only 50% in rural areas, according to Pew Internet & amp; The American Life Project. Virgin Media advertises over 100 cities across the UK "from Cwmbran to Clydebank" that have access to their 100Mbit/s service.

Wireless Internet service providers (WISP) are fast becoming popular broadband options for rural areas. The requirements of line-of-sight technology can hinder connectivity in some areas with hilly terrain and are highly foliated. However, the Tegola project, a successful pilot in remote Scotland, shows that wireless can be a viable option.

Broadband for Rural Nova Scotia initiatives is the first program in North America to ensure access to "100% of civil addresses" in a region. It's based on Motorola Canopy technology. As of November 2011, under 1,000 households have reported access problems. The spread of a new cell network by one of the Canopy providers (Eastlink) is expected to provide an alternative 3G/4G service, possibly at a special unmetered rate, to more difficult areas served by Canopy.

In New Zealand, funds have been set up by the government to increase rural broadband, and cell phone coverage. Current proposals include: (a) expanding fiber coverage and increasing copper to support VDSL; (b) focusing on increasing the coverage of mobile phone technology, or (c) regional wireless.

Access as civil or human rights

The actions, statements, opinions, and recommendations outlined below have led to the suggestion that Internet access itself or should become civil or human rights.

Some countries have adopted laws that require states to work to ensure that Internet access is widely available and/or prevent the state from unfairly restricting individual access to information and the internet:

• Costa Rica: A decision on July 30, 2010 by the Costa Rican Supreme Court stated: "Without fear of silence, it can be said that this technology [information and communication technology] has influenced the way people communicate, facilitate relationships between people and institutions around the world and remove space and time barriers. At present, access to this technology is a basic tool for facilitating the implementation of basic rights and democratic participation (e-democracy) and citizen control, education, freedom of thought and expression, access to information and online public services, the right to communicate with governmental transparency electronically and administratively, among others.This includes the basic right of access to this technology, in particular, the right of access to the Internet or the World Wide Web. "
• Estonia: In 2000, the parliament launched a massive program to expand access to the countryside. The internet, according to the government, is crucial to life in the 21st century.
• Finland: In July 2010, every person in Finland will have access to one megabyte broadband connection per second, according to the Ministry of Transport and Communications. And by 2015, access to 100 Mbit/s connection.
• France: In June 2009, the Constitutional Council, the highest court of France, declared access to the Internet to be a basic human right in the decision with harsh words that struck parts of HADOPI law, a law that would track perpetrators of violence and without judicial review automatically disconnect the network to those who continue to download prohibited materials after two warnings
• Greece: Article 5A The Greek Constitution states that everyone has the right to participate in the Information Society and that the state has an obligation to facilitate the production, exchange, diffusion and access to information transmitted electronically.
• Spain: Starting in 2011, TelefÃÆ'³nica, a former state monopoly holding the country's "universal service" contract, must guarantee to offer broadband "affordable price" at least one megabyte per second across Spain.

In December 2003, the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) was organized under the auspices of the United Nations. After long negotiations between government, business and civil society representatives, the WSIS Declaration of Principles was adopted to reaffirm the importance of the Information Society to defend and strengthen human rights:

1. We, representatives of the world community, gathered in Geneva from 10-12 December 2003 for the first phase of the World Summit on the Information Society, expressed our shared desire and commitment to building a community centered, inclusive and development- Information-oriented, where everyone can create, access, utilize, and share information and knowledge, enabling individuals, communities and communities to reach their full potential in promoting their sustainable development and improving their quality of life, based on the goals and principles The Charter of the United Nations and fully respect and uphold the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

3. We reaffirm the universality, indivisibility, interdependence and interrelation of all human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the right to development, as enshrined in the Vienna Declaration. We also reaffirm that democracy, sustainable development, and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms and good governance at all levels are interdependent and mutually reinforcing. We further decided to strengthen the rule of law in international as in national affairs.

The WSIS Declaration of Principles makes a special reference to the importance of the right to freedom of expression in the "Information Society" in stating:

4. We reaffirm, as an important basis of the Information Society, and as outlined in Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, that everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; that this right includes freedom to have uninterrupted opinions and to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas through any media and without limitation whatsoever. Communication is a fundamental social process, the basic human need and the foundation of all social organization. This is the center of the Information Society. Everyone, everywhere should have the opportunity to participate and nothing should be excluded from the benefits of an Information Society offering. "

A poll of 27,973 adults in 26 countries, including 14,306 internet users, conducted for BBC World Service between November 30, 2009 and February 7, 2010 found that nearly four out of five Internet and non-user users worldwide felt that access to the Internet is a fundamental right. 50% strongly agree, 29% somewhat agree, 9% somewhat disagree, 6% strongly disagree, and 6% do not give an opinion.

88 recommendations made by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of expression and expression in the May 2011 report to the Human Rights Council of the United Nations General Assembly including some containing questions about the right to the Internet access:

67. Unlike other media, the internet allows individuals to search, receive, and pass information and ideas of all types instantly and cheaply across national borders. By expanding the capacity of individuals to enjoy their right to freedom of opinion and expression, which is the "enabler" of other human rights, the Internet enhances economic, social and political development, and contributes to the progress of mankind as a whole. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur encourages other Special Procedure holders to engage in Internet issues in connection with their specific mandate.

78. While blocking and filtering actions deny user access to certain content on the Internet, the State has also taken steps to bypass access to the Internet completely. The Special Rapporteur considers to cut off users from Internet access, irrespective of the justification provided, including on the grounds of violating intellectual property laws, to be disproportionate and thereby violate article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

79. The Special Rapporteur calls on all States to ensure that Internet access is maintained at all times, including during periods of political unrest.

85. Given that the internet has become an indispensable tool for realizing human rights, combating inequality, and accelerating human development and advancement, ensuring universal access to the Internet should be a priority for all States. Each State must develop concrete and effective policies, in consultation with individuals from all sections of society, including the private sector and the ministries concerned, to make the Internet widely available, accessible and affordable for all segments of the population.

Network neutrality

Network neutrality (also net neutrality, internet neutrality, or net equation) is the principle that Internet and government service providers should treat all data on the Internet equally, not differentiating or charging differently by users, content, sites, platforms, apps, equipment types installed, or communication mode. Net neutrality advocates have raised concerns about the ability of broadband providers to use their last mile infrastructure to block Internet applications and content (eg websites, services, and protocols), and even to block competitors. Opponents claiming net neutrality rules will hinder investment in improving broadband infrastructure and try to fix something that is not broken. In April 2017, the latest attempt to compromise net neutrality in the United States is being considered by the newly appointed FCC chairman, Ajit Varadaraj Pai. The vote on whether or not to remove net neutrality was passed on 14 December 2017, and ended with a 3-2 split in favor of the removal of net neutrality.

src: i.ytimg.com

Natural disaster and access

Natural disasters disrupt internet access in depth. This is important - not just for telecommunication companies that have networks and businesses that use them, but also for emergency crews and displaced people. The situation gets worse when hospitals or other buildings needed for disaster response lose their connection. Knowledge gained from studying past internet disruptions by natural disasters can be utilized in planning or recovery. In addition, due to natural and man-made disasters, studies in tissue endurance are now being done to prevent large-scale outages.

One way natural disasters impact on internet connections is to damage the subnet (subnet), making them unreachable. A study on the local network after Hurricane Katrina found that 26% of subnets within the storm coverage were unreachable. At the peak intensity of Hurricane Katrina, nearly 35% of Mississippi's networks have no electricity, while about 14% of Louisiana networks are disrupted. Of the unreached subnets, 73% are disrupted for four weeks or more and 57% are on "the edge of the network where important emergency organizations such as hospitals and government agencies are mostly located". Extensive infrastructure damage and inaccessible areas are two explanations for long delays in return services. The Cisco company has revealed a Network Emergency Response Vehicle (NERV), a truck that allows portable communications for emergency responders even though traditional networks are being disrupted.

The second way natural disasters undermine internet connectivity is by disconnecting the sea cables - fiber optic cables placed on the seabed that provide international internet connections. A series of undersea earthquakes cut six of the seven international cables connected to the country and caused a tsunami that wiped out one of its cables and landing stations. The impact of internet connections is slowed down or disabled for five days in the Asia-Pacific region as well as between the region and the United States and Europe.

With the increasing popularity of cloud computing, concerns have increased over access to cloud-hosted data in the event of a natural disaster. Amazon Web Services (AWS) has been breaking news for major network terminations in April 2011 and June 2012. AWS, like other major cloud hosting companies, is preparing public outages and large-scale natural disaster with backup power and backup data centers in other locations. AWS divides the world into five areas and then divides each region into an availability zone. Data centers in one availability zone must be supported by data centers in different availability zones. Theoretically, natural disasters will not affect more than one availability zone. This theory applies as long as human error is not added to the mix. The big storm of June 2012 only disables the main data center, but human errors disable secondary and tertiary backup, which affects companies like Netflix, Pinterest, Reddit, and Instagram.

src: ifncom.co

See also

src: techrasa.com

References

src: www.inewsguyana.com

External links

• Broadband Europe
• Company vs. Internet Community, AlterNet, June 14, 2005, - on clashes between attempts by US cities to expand city broadband and company efforts to maintain their markets
• Broadband data, from Google's public data
• US National Broadband Map
• Connection Type Broadband, Broadband.gov

Source of the article : Wikipedia