The American Revolution was a colonial insurrection that took place between 1765 and 1783. The American Patriots in the Thirteen Colonies won independence from Britain, becoming the United States. They defeated the British in the American Revolutionary War in communion with France and others.
Members of the colonial American community argued that the position of "no taxes without representation", began with the Stamp Law Congress in 1765. They rejected British Parliament authorities to impose taxes because they had no members in the governing body. Protests continued to rise to the Boston Massacre in 1770 and the burning of Gaspee in Rhode Island in 1772, followed by the Boston Tea Party in December 1773, in which the Patriots destroyed the tea tax shipment. Britain responded by closing Boston Harbor, then followed by a series of legislative acts that effectively canceled the colonial Massachusetts Bay Colony's rights from self-government and caused other colonies to unite behind Massachusetts. In late 1774, the Patriots established their own alternative government to better coordinate their resistance efforts against the British; other colonists prefer to remain in tune with the Crown and are known as Loyalist or Tories .
Tensions erupted in the battle between the Patriot militia and the regular British army when the king's army tried to capture and destroy the colonial military supplies at Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775. The conflict then developed into a global war, where the Patriots (and then their French, Spanish, The Netherlands) fought the British and Loyalists in what is known as the American Revolutionary War (1775-183). Each of the thirteen colonies formed a Provincial Congress that took over the powers of the old colonial government and suppressed Loyalism, and from there they built the Continental Army under the leadership of General George Washington. The Continental Congress determines the power of King George to become tyrannical and violates the rights of colonists as English, and they declare free and independent colonies on July 2, 1776. The Patriot leadership recognizes the political philosophy of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy. , and they declare that all human beings are created equal.
The Continental Army forced redcoats out of Boston in March 1776, but in the summer Britain captured and detained New York City and its strategic port during the war. The Royal Navy blockaded the harbor and captured another town for a short period, but they failed to defeat Washington's forces. The Patriots failed to try to invade Canada during the winter of 1775-76, but managed to capture the British army at the Battle of Saratoga in October 1777. France now enters war as an ally of the United States with large army and navy threatened. England itself. The war turned to South America where Britain under the leadership of Charles Cornwallis captured troops in Charleston, South Carolina in the early 1780s but failed to request enough volunteers from Loyalist civilians to take effective control of the territory. The American-French joint forces captured the second British army at Yorktown in the fall of 1781, effectively ending the war. The Paris Treaty was signed on September 3, 1783, formally ending the conflict and ensuring complete separation of the new state of the United Kingdom. The United States controlled virtually all areas east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with England retaining Canadian and Spanish controls taking Florida.
Among the significant results of the revolution is the creation of the Constitution of the United States, establishing a relatively strong federal national government that includes executives, national courts, and bicameral Congress representing the countries of the Senate and the population of the House of Representatives. The revolution also resulted in the migration of about 60,000 Loyalists to other British territories, most notably the British North America (Canada).
Video American Revolution
Origin
Historians usually begin the history of the American Revolution with the victory of the British coalition in the Seven Years War in 1763. The North American theater of the Seven Years War is commonly known as the French and Indian Wars in the United States; it removed France as a major player in North American affairs and caused the territory of New France to be surrendered to England. Lawrence Henry Gipson writes:
- It can be said to be true that the American Revolution was the result of the Anglo-French conflict in the New World that lasted between 1754 and 1763.
The Proclamation of the Kingdom of 1763 may also play a role in the separation of the Thirteen Colonies of England, because the colonists want to continue to migrate westward to the lands given by the Crown to their war service. The proclamation, however, cut it off. The land west of Quebec and west of the line that runs along the summit of the Allegheny Mountains into the territory of India, is prohibited for settlement for two years.
The colonists protested, and the line was adjusted in a series of treaties with the Indians. In 1768, the Indians agreed with the Fort Stanwix Agreement and the Hard Working Agreement, followed in 1770 by the Lochaber Agreement. The agreement opened most of Kentucky and West Virginia to colonial settlements. The new map was compiled at the Fort Stanwix Agreement in 1768 that moved the line farther west, from the green line to the red line on the map to the right.
1651-1748: Initial Seed
In early 1651, the British government tried to regulate trade in American colonies. On October 9, the Navigation Act was passed in accordance with mercantilist policies intended to ensure that trade only enriched the United Kingdom, and banned trade with foreign countries. Some argue that the economic impact is minimal on the colonists, but the political friction triggered by the action is more serious, since the most directly affected traders are the most politically active. The war of King Philip ended in 1678, and much of the battle was carried out without significant assistance from England. It contributes to the development of a unique identity, separate from the identity of the British people.
In the 1680s, King Charles II was determined to bring the New England colony under a more centralized government to regulate trade more effectively. His efforts were strongly opposed by the colonists, resulting in the annihilation of their colonial charter by the Crown. Successor Charles James II completed these efforts in 1686, establishing the Dominion of New England. The rules of domination sparked bitterness throughout New England; the enforcement of the Unpopular Navigation Act and the restrictions of local democracy angered the colonists. New British supporters were encouraged, however, by the change of government in England which saw James II effectively abdicate the throne, and populist uprising overthrew Dominion's rule on April 18, 1689. The colonial government reasserted their control after the revolt, and successive governments made no more attempt to restore Dominion.
The next British government continued their efforts to impose certain goods taxes, through the actions that govern the trade of wool, hats, and molasses. The Molasses Act of 1733 is especially frightening to the colonists, as an important part of colonial trade depends on the product. Taxes severely damaged New England's economy, and taxes were rarely paid, resulting in a wave of smuggling, bribery, and intimidation of customs officials. Colonial wars in America are often a source of great tension. The British captured Louisbourg's fortress during the Austrian War of Succession, but later handed it back to France in 1748. The New England colony hated the loss of their lives, as well as the effort and expenditure involved in the conquest of the castle, only to have him return to his old enemy.
1764-1766: Taxes are charged and withdrawn
In 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Law to withhold the use of paper money, fearing otherwise the colonists might avoid paying the debt. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs on a number of articles. That same year, Prime Minister George Grenville proposed a direct tax on the colony to boost revenues, but he postponed actions to see if the colony would propose some way to raise the income itself. Parliament finally passed a Stamp Act in March 1765 that imposed a direct tax on the colony for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets are required to have stamps - even a deck of playing cards.
The colonists do not mind that the tax is high; they are actually low. They object to the fact that they have no representation in Parliament, and thus there is no vote on the laws affecting them. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that America had made a major contribution to the Imperial defense. He said that the local government had raised, equiped and paid 25,000 troops to fight France - as much as Britain sent it - and spent millions of dollars from the American treasury doing it in the French and Indian Wars only. London has to deal with 1,500 British Army soldiers with political connections. The decision was to keep them active with full salaries, but they had to be placed somewhere. Establishing soldiers standing in Britain during times of peace is politically unacceptable, so decisions are made to place them in America and ask Americans to pay them. The soldiers have no military mission; they were not there to defend the colony because there was no threat to the colony.
The Sons of Liberty was formed in 1765. They used public demonstrations, boycotts, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that British tax laws do not have the force of law. In Boston, Sons of Liberty burned admiralty court records and ransacked the home of Thomas Hutchinson's chief justice. Some legislatures called for unified action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765. Moderates led by John Dickinson made the "Declaration of Rights and Complaints" stating that taxes passed without representation violate their rights as People English. The colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise.
The Parliament at Westminster sees itself as the highest law-making authority in all British possession and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval. They argue that the colony is a legitimate British company that is entirely subservient to the British parliament and points to many examples where Parliament has made laws that bind colonies in the past. They see nothing in the unspoken English constitution that makes taxes special and notes that they have burdened American trade for decades. Parliament insisted that the colonies were effectively enjoying "virtual representations" as most British people do, because only a small minority of the population of Britain elected representation to Parliament. Americans like James Otis claim that Americans are not actually represented.
In London, the Rockingham government came to power (July 1765) and Parliament debated whether to revoke stamp taxes or send troops to enforce them. Benjamin Franklin made a case for repeal, explaining that the colony had spent a lot of money in manpower, money, and blood in imperial defenses in a series of wars against France and India, and that further taxes to pay for the war were unfair and might bring rebellion. Parliament agreed and withdrew the tax (February 21, 1766), but insisted in the March 1766 Declaration Act that they retained full power to make the law for the colony "in all cases of any kind". But the revocation caused extensive celebration in the colonies.
1767-1773: Townshend Acts and the Tea Act
In 1767, Parliament authorized Townshend Acts to place charges on a number of important goods, including paper, glass and tea, and established a Customs Board in Boston to enforce stricter trade regulations. The new taxes apply to the belief that Americans only object to internal taxes and not external taxes such as import duties. The Americans, however, oppose the constitutionality of the law because the aim is to increase revenues and not regulate trade. The colonists responded by organizing a new boycott of British goods. These boycott are less effective, because Townshend goods are widely used.
In February 1768, the Assembly of Massachusetts Bay issued a circular to other colonies urging them to coordinate the resistance. The governor dissolved the assembly when refused to cancel the letter. Meanwhile, riots broke out in Boston in June 1768 over the seizure of John Hancock's "Lloyds of Liberty", due to alleged smuggling. Customs officials were forced to flee, prompting the British to deploy troops to Boston. A Boston meeting stated that no compliance was due to parliamentary laws and called for a convention. A convention gathered but only issued a mild protest before dissolving. In January 1769, Parliament responded to the riots by reactivating the 1543 Act of Reconciliation which called for subjects outside the kingdom to face trials for treason in Britain. The Massachusetts governor was ordered to collect evidence of such betrayal, and the threat caused widespread anger, even if it was not done.
On March 5, 1770, a large crowd gathered around a group of British soldiers. The crowd began to threaten, throwing snowballs, rocks and debris toward them. A soldier was beaten and fell. There was no order to shoot, but the soldiers fired at the crowd. They hit 11 â € <â € A new ministry under Lord North came to power in 1770, and Parliament withdrew all taxes except taxes on tea, giving up its efforts to increase revenue while retaining the right to tax. This temporarily solved the crisis, and the boycott of British goods largely ceased, with only the more radical patriots like Samuel Adams continuing uneasily. In June 1772, American patriots, including John Brown, set fire to a British warship that strongly enforced unpopular trade rules in what is known as Gaspee Affair. The affair was investigated for possible betrayal, but no action was taken. In 1772, it was discovered that the Crown intended to pay a steady salary to governors and judges in Massachusetts. Samuel Adams in Boston began creating a new Correspondent Committee, which links the Patriots in all 13 colonies and ultimately provides a framework for the rebellious government. Virginia, the largest colony, established the Correspondence Committee in early 1773, in which Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson served. A total of about 7,000 to 8,000 Patriots serve on "Committees of Correspondence" at the colonial and local levels, comprising most of the leadership in their community. Loyalists are not included. These committees became leaders of American resistance to British action, and were crucial to state and local war effort. When the First Continental Congress decides to boycott British products, the Colonial and Local Committees take over, examine merchant records and publish the names of merchants who try to oppose the boycott by importing British goods. In 1773, private letters were published in which the Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson claimed that the colonists could not enjoy all the freedoms of England, and Lieutenant Governor Andrew Oliver called for the direct payment of the colonial officials. The contents of the letters were used as evidence of a systematic plot against American rights, and discrediting Hutchinson in the eyes of the people; The Assembly pleaded for his withdrawal. Benjamin Franklin, the general postmaster for the colonies, admitted that he leaked the letters, which caused him to be berated by British officials and dismissed from his job. Meanwhile, Parliament passed the Tea Law to lower the price of taxed tea exported to the colonies to help the East India Company sell smuggled Dutch teas. Special recipients were appointed to sell tea to pass the colonial merchants. The action was opposed by those who refused taxes as well as smugglers who stood to lose business. In many cases, the recipients were forced to resign and tea returned, but the Massachusetts Governor Hutchinson refused to allow the Boston traders to surrender. The Boston city meeting determined that the tea would not land, and ignored a request from the governor to disperse. On December 16, 1773, a group of people, led by Samuel Adams and dressed to evoke the appearance of American Indians, boarded the ships of the British East India Company and disposed of 10,000 pounds of tea from their hold (approximately Ã, Â £ 636,000 in 2008 ) to Boston Harbor. Several decades later, the event was known as the Boston Tea Party and remains an important part of American patriotic knowledge. 1774-1775: The Unacceptable Story and Quebec Act
The British government responded by endorsing some Acts later known as the Story of Not Intolerant, which further embraced the colonial view of Britain. They consist of four laws passed by the British parliament. The first is the Massachusetts Government Law that alters the Massachusetts charter and limits city meetings. The second act was the Administration of Justice Law which ordered all British soldiers to be tried to be dragged to England, not in the colonies. The third law is the Boston Port Act, which closes Boston's port until the UK is compensated for tea lost at the Boston Tea Party. The fourth law is the Quartering Act of 1774, which allows the royal governor to place British troops in the homes of citizens without the need for permission from the owner.
In response, Massachusetts patriots issued the Suffolk Resolution and formed an alternative shadow government known as the "Provincial Congress" that began training militias outside of Britain occupied Boston. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress was held, consisting of representatives from each colony, to serve as a vehicle for discussion and collective action. During the secret debate, conservative Joseph Galloway proposed the formation of a colonial Parliament that would be able to approve or reject the actions of the British Parliament, but his ideas were not accepted. Congress instead supported John Adams's proposal that Americans would voluntarily comply with Parliament but would reject all disguised taxes. Congress called for a boycott beginning on December 1, 1774 of all British goods; it is upheld by new committees passed by Congress.
Maps American Revolution
Military hostilities begin
Massachusetts was declared in a state of rebellion in February 1775 and the British garrison received orders to disarm the rebels and arrest their leaders, leading to the Battle of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775. The Patriots surrounded Boston, expelled the royal officials of all the colonies, and take control through the establishment of the Provincial Congress. The Bunker Hill Battle was followed on 17 June 1775. It was a British victory - but at great cost: about 1,000 British casualties from garrisons of about 6,000, compared to 500 American casualties from a much larger army. The Second Continental Congress was divided into best acts, but ultimately produced the Olive Branch Petition, where they sought to reach agreement with King George. The king, however, issued a Revolt Proclamation stating that states "in rebellion" and the members of Congress are traitors.
In the winter of 1775, the Americans attacked Canada under the generals Benedict Arnold and Richard Montgomery. The attack failed miserably; many Americans who are not killed get caught or die from smallpox.
In March 1776, the Continental Army forced the British to evacuate Boston, with George Washington as commander of the new army. The revolutionaries now hold full control over the 13 colonies and are ready to declare independence. There were still many Loyalists, but they were no longer in control anywhere in July 1776, and all the Royal officials had fled.
Creating a new country constitution
After the Bunker Hill Battle of June 1775, the Patriots took control of Massachusetts beyond the borders of Boston, and the Loyalists suddenly found themselves in defense without protection from the British army. In all 13 colonies, the Patriots have overthrown their existing government, sealed off courts and expelled British officials. They have chosen the convention and "legislature" that exist outside any legal framework; a new constitution was made in each state to replace the royal charters. They declare that they are a country now, not a colony.
On January 5, 1776, New Hampshire ratified the country's first constitution. In May 1776, Congress voted to suppress all forms of crown authority, to be replaced by locally created authority. Virginia, South Carolina, and New Jersey created their constitution before 4 July. Rhode Island and Connecticut take only the existing royal charter and remove all references to the crown. The new countries are all committed to republicanism, without the inheritance office. They decide what form of government to make, as well as how to choose those who will draft the constitution and how the resulting documents will be ratified. On May 26, 1776, John Adams wrote James Sullivan from Philadelphia:
"Depending on that, sir, it's dangerous to open up so many sources of controversy and quarrels, as it will open by trying to change voter qualifications.There will be no ends.New claims will emerge.Women will sue Youth from age two to twenty one thinking that their rights are not adequately addressed, and that everyone who does not have much will demand a voice equal to others in all the actions of the state.This tends to disrupt and destroy all differences, and prostrate all rankings, to a common level. "
Constitutions produced in countries such as Maryland, Virginia, Delaware, New York, and Massachusetts show:
- Qualifying property for voting and even more substantial terms for selected positions (though New York and Maryland lowered property qualifiers)
- Bicameral legislature, with the upper house as a check below
- Strong governor with veto over legislative and substantial appointment authority
- Little or no limits on individuals holding multiple positions in government
- Continuation of established country religion
In Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New Hampshire, the resulting constitution is manifested:
- universal suffrage, or minimum property requirement for choosing or holding a title (New Jersey grants property rights to multiple widows, a move withdrawn 25 years later)
- unique, unicameral legislative
- a relatively weak governor without veto power, and with little designation authority
- ban on individuals holding multiple government posts
The radical constitutional provisions of Pennsylvania lasted only 14 years. In 1790, conservatives gained power in the state legislature, called a new constitutional convention, and rewrote the constitution. The new constitution substantially reduces the universal male suffrage, grants the governor veto power and patronage appointment authority, and adds an upper chamber with a considerable wealth qualification to unicameral legislatures. Thomas Paine calls it an unsuitable constitution for America.
Independence and Unity
In April 1776, the North Carolina Provincial Congress passed a Halifax Resolution that explicitly allowed its delegates to vote for independence. In May, Congress called on all states to write the constitution and remove the last remnants of the royal government.
In June, nine colonies were ready for independence; one by one, the last four falling to the line: Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and New York. Richard Henry Lee was ordered by the Virginia legislature to propose independence, and he did so on June 7, 1776. On 11 June, a committee was formed to draw up a document explaining the justification for the separation from Britain. After getting enough votes for the part, independence was chosen on July 2nd. The Declaration of Independence was composed largely by Thomas Jefferson and presented by the committee; it was unanimously adopted by the entire Congress on July 4, and each colony became independent and sovereign. The next step is to form trade unions to facilitate international relations and alliances.
Second Continental Congress approved "Confederation Articles" for ratification by the state on 15 November 1777; The Congress immediately began operating under the provisions of the Article, providing the structure of common sovereignty during the prosecution of war and facilitating international relations and alliances with France and Spain. The article was ratified on 1 March 1781. At that time, the Continental Congress was dissolved and the new United States government at the Assembled Congress took place the following day, with Samuel Huntington as chairman.
Maintaining Revolution
English Return: 1776-1777
According to British historian Jeremy Black, Britain has significant advantages, including highly trained soldiers, the world's largest navies, and a highly efficient public finance system that can easily fund war. However, the British were completely flawed by their misconceptions about the depth of support for the Patriot position. Ignoring the advice of General Gage, they misinterpreted the situation as just a massive riot. London decided that they could conquer America by sending huge military and naval forces, forcing them to be faithful again:
Convinced that the Revolution is the work of some full-fledged criminals who have mobilized armed gangs for their purposes, they hope that revolutionaries will be intimidated.... Then most Americans, who are faithful but fearful of terrorist tactics.... will rise up, drive out the rebels, and restore a faithful government in each of the colonies.
Washington forced Britain out of Boston in the spring of 1776, and both Britain and the Loyalists controlled significant territories. The British, however, deploy troops at their naval base in Halifax, Nova Scotia. They resumed in July 1776, landed in New York and defeated the Washington Continent Army in August at the Battle of Brooklyn. After the victory, Britain called for a meeting with representatives of Congress to negotiate an end to hostilities.
A delegation including John Adams and Benjamin Franklin met Howe at Staten Island in New York Harbor on September 11, known as the Staten Island Peace Conference. Howe demanded the withdrawal of the Declaration of Independence, which was rejected, and the negotiations ended. Britain then quickly seized New York City and almost captured Washington troops. They made New York a base for their main military and political operations in North America, detaining it until November 1783. The city became the destination of Loyalist refugees and the central point of the Washington intelligence network.
Britain also took New Jersey, pushing the Continental Army into Pennsylvania. Washington crossed the Delaware River back to New Jersey in a surprise attack in late December 1776 and defeated the Hessian and British armies at Trenton and Princeton, regaining control of much of New Jersey. Victory gives an important boost to the Patriots at a time when morale is uphill, and has become an iconic event of war.
In 1777, the British sent invading Burgoyne troops from southern Canada to New York to close New England. Their goal is to neutralize the Yankees, which Britain considers the main source of agitators. The British army in New York City went to Philadelphia in a big case of wrong coordination, taking it from Washington. The invasion forces under Burgoyne were too slow and trapped in the northern state of New York. It was surrendered after the Battle of Saratoga in October 1777. From early October 1777 to 15 November, a siege distracted the British troops at Fort Mifflin, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and allowed Washington time to preserve the Continental Army safely leading its troops to the harsh winter spot in the Valley Forge.
Prisoners
In August 1775, George III declared America with a weapon against the royal authority to become a traitor to the Crown. After surrendering to the Battle of Saratoga in October 1777, there were thousands of British and Hessian soldiers in American hands. Although Lord Germain took a hard line, the British generals at the scene never conducted a betrayal trial; they treat enemy soldiers who are captured as prisoners of war. The dilemma is that tens of thousands of Loyalists are under American control and American retaliation will be easy. The British built most of their strategies using these Loyalists, and therefore, no Americans were put on trial for treason. The British tortured the prisoners they held, which resulted in more deaths for American sailors and soldiers than from combat operations. At the end of the war, the two sides freed their surviving prisoners.
American Alliance after 1778
The capture of British soldiers in Saratoga prompted France to formally enter the war to support Congress. Benjamin Franklin negotiated a permanent military alliance in early 1778, significantly becoming the first country to formally recognize the Declaration of Independence. On February 6, 1778, an Amity and Commerce Agreement and the Alliance Agreement were signed between the United States and France. William Pitt speaking in parliament urged Britain to make peace in the United States and unite with America against France, while other British politicians who previously sympathized with colonial complaints are now turning against America for allying with the enemies and international foes of Britain.
Later, Spain (in 1779) and the Netherlands (1780) became allies of France, leaving the British Empire to fight the global war alone without major allies, and require it to slip through the combined Atlantic blockade. The American theater became just one front in the British war. Britain was forced to withdraw troops from the Americas to strengthen valuable sugar-producing Caribbean colonies, which were more favorable to British investors.
British commander Sir Henry Clinton took refuge in Philadelphia and returned to New York City. General Washington intercepted Clinton at the Battle of Monmouth Court House, the last major battle to fight in the north. After an unconvincing involvement, the British managed to retreat to New York City. The northern war then became a dead end, as the focus of attention shifted to the smaller southern theater.
England, move the South, 1778-1783
The British strategy in America is now concentrated on a campaign in the southern states. With fewer regular troops at their disposal, British commanders see the "southern strategy" as a more vigorous plan, because the south is perceived as a stronger Loyalist, with a large population of recent immigrants and a large number of slaves who may be arrested or escaped to join the UK.
Beginning in late December 1778, the British captured Savannah and controlled the coastline of Georgia. In 1780, they launched a new invasion and took Charleston, too. A significant victory in the Battle of Camden means the imperial troops soon overwhelmed most of Georgia and South Carolina. The British built a fortress network in the interior, hoping the Loyalists will move to the flag.
Not enough Loyalists are changing, however, and the British have to fight northward to North Carolina and Virginia, with very weak soldiers. Behind them, much of the area they had stolen was dissolved into a chaotic guerrilla war, mainly occurring among Loyalist bands and American militia, negating the many advantages that the British had made before.
Surrender in Yorktown (1781)
British troops under Cornwallis marched to Yorktown, Virginia where they were expected to be rescued by the British fleet. The fleet appeared, but also the larger French fleet, so the British fleet returned to New York to receive aid after the Chesapeake Battle, leaving Cornwallis trapped. In October 1781, the British surrendered their second invader war army, under siege by the combined French and Continental forces commanded by Washington.
The end of the war
Historians continue to argue whether the chances for the American victory are long or short. John E. Ferling said that the opportunity was so long that America's victory was "almost like a miracle". On the other hand, Joseph Ellis said that the opportunity was beneficial to Americans, and asked if there was a realistic chance for England to win. He argued that this opportunity came only once, in the summer of 1776, and England failed the test. Admiral Howe and his brother, General Howe, "lost some opportunities to destroy the Continental Army.... Opportunities, luck, and even the oddity of weather play an important role." Ellis's point is that the strategic and tactical decisions of Howes are severely flawed because they underestimate the challenges posed by Patriots. Ellis concludes that, as soon as the Howe brothers fail, the opportunity for England's victory "will never come again."
Support for conflict has never been strong in Britain, where many people sympathize with America, but now reach new lows. King George III personally wanted to fight, but his supporters lost control of Parliament and no other major ground attack was launched at the American Theater. It will be three decades until the war resumes with the War of 1812, which strongly establishes the immortality of the United States.
Washington can not know that Britain will not reopen hostilities after Yorktown. They still have 26,000 troops who occupy New York City, Charleston, and Savannah, along with powerful fleets. The French army and navy left, so the Americans themselves were in 1782-83. The treasury was empty, and the unpaid soldiers grew nervous, almost to the point of rebellion or perhaps a coup d'êtat . The riot between Newburgh Conspiracy officers was personally denied by Washington in 1783, and Congress then created a five-year bonus pledge for all officers.
Paris peace treaty
During the negotiations in Paris, the American delegation found that France would support independence, but there was no territorial advantage. The new state will be limited to the eastern region of the Appalachian Mountains. The American delegation opened secret negotiations directly with London, cutting France out. British Prime Minister Lord Shelburne takes full responsibility for the British negotiations. He now sees the opportunity to make the United States a valuable economic partner. The US acquired all the land east of the Mississippi River, southern Canada, and north Florida. It obtained a fishing rights off the coast of Canada, and agreed to allow British merchants and Loyalists to try to recover their properties. This is a very favorable agreement for the United States, and deliberately from an English point of view. Prime Minister Shelburne foresaw a very favorable two-way trade between Britain and the United States, as it did. As the blockade was lifted and the old imperial restrictions disappeared, American merchants freely trade with any country in the world, and their business grows.
Britain left most of India's allies living in a new country. They are not parties to this agreement and do not recognize it until they are defeated militarily by the United States. However, the British did promise to support the Indians. They sold them ammunition and defended the fortress in the territory of America until the Treaty of Jay in 1795.
Impact on UK
Losing war and 13 colonies was a surprise for England. The war reveals the limitations of the British fiscal-military state when they discover that they suddenly face strong enemies without allies, and they rely on extended and vulnerable transatlantic lines of communication. The defeat heightened the dispute and increased political clashes with the King's ministers. Within parliament, the main concern shifts from the fear of a king who is too strong on issues of representation, parliamentary reform, and government saving. The reformists are trying to destroy what they see as widespread institutional corruption.
The result was a very strong crisis from 1776 to 1783. Peace in 1783 left France financially prostrate, while the British economy exploded thanks to the return of American business. The crisis came to an end after 1784 thanks to King's shrewdness in outwiting Charles James Fox (leader of the Fox-North Coalition), and renewed confidence in the system raised by the new Prime Minister William Pitt's leadership. Historians conclude that the disappearance of American colonies allowed England to confront the French Revolution with more unity and better organization than it should have been. Britain turned to Asia, the Pacific, and then Africa with the next exploration that led to the rise of the Second Kingdom of England.
Finance
The British War against America, France and Spain cost about £ 100 million. The Treasury borrows 40% of the money required. Major expenditures brought France to the brink of bankruptcy and revolution, while Britain was relatively difficult to finance their wars, keeping their suppliers and soldiers paid, and employing tens of thousands of German soldiers.
Britain has a sophisticated financial system based on the wealth of thousands of landowners, who support the government, along with banks and financiers in London. The British tax system collected about 12 percent of GDP in taxes during the 1770s.
Conversely, Congress and the American states have no end of difficulty financing the war. In 1775, there were at most 12 million dollars of gold in the colonies, not enough to cover the current transaction, let alone finance the big war. Britain made the situation worse by imposing strict blockades on every American port, which cuts almost all imports and exports. One partial solution is to rely on voluntary support from militias and donations from patriotic citizens. Another is to delay actual payments, pay soldiers and suppliers in a depreciated currency, and promise that it will be good after the war. Indeed, the soldiers and officers were given a land grant in 1783 to cover the wages they earned but not paid during the war. It was not until 1781 that the national government had a strong leader in financial matters, when Robert Morris was appointed United States Financial Superintendent.
Morris used French loans in 1782 to establish a North American private bank to finance the war. Seeking greater efficiency, Morris reduced the population list, saving money by using competitive bidding for contracts, tightening accounting procedures, and demanding a full share of national government money and supplies from confederate countries.
Congress used four main methods to cover the cost of the war, which cost about 66 million dollars in currency (gold and silver). Congress made two paper money issues - in 1775-1780 and in 1780-81. The first problem amounted to 242 million dollars. This banknote should be redeemed for state taxes, but the holders eventually paid off in 1791 at the rate of a penny. In 1780, the notes "did not deserve the Continental," as people say.
The surge in inflation is difficult for a handful of people who have a steady income - but 90 percent of the population is farmers, and not directly affected by inflation. Debtors benefit from paying off their debts with depreciated paper. The greatest burden is borne by the Continental Army army, whose wages are usually in arrears and declining in value every month, weakening their spirits and adding to the suffering of their families.
Beginning in 1777, Congress repeatedly requested states to provide money. But the states also do not have a tax system, and only a little help. In 1780, Congress made a request for a special supply of corn, beef, pork, and other necessities - an inefficient system that made soldiers barely alive.
Beginning in 1776, the Congress sought to raise money with loans from wealthy people, promising to redeem bonds after the war. The bonds were in fact exchanged in 1791 with nominal value, but the scheme earns little money because Americans have few specimens, and many of the wealthy merchants are Crown supporters. Beginning in 1776, France secretly supplied America with money, ammunition, and ammunition to weaken its arch-enemy, Great Britain. When France officially entered the war in 1778, subsidies continued, and the French government, as well as bankers in Paris and Amsterdam, gave a large amount to American war effort. This loan was fully paid in the 1790s.
Revolutionary Cover
Creating a "more perfect union" and guaranteeing rights
The war finally ended in 1783 and was followed by a period of prosperity. The national government still operates under the Confederate Budget and is able to resolve the problem of the western region, which is handed over by the state to Congress. American settlers moved rapidly into these areas, with Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee becoming states in the 1790s.
However, the national government has no money to pay the war debts to European countries and private banks, or pay those Americans who have given millions of dollars of promissory notes for supplies during the war. Nationalists led by Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and other veterans fear that the new nation is too fragile to withstand international wars, or even internal uprisings like Shays' Rebellion of 1786 in Massachusetts.
Calling themselves "Federalists," the nationalists convinced Congress to call the Philadelphia Convention in 1787. The Convention adopted a new Constitution which provides for a stronger federal government, including an effective executive in the check-and-balance system with judicial and legislative institutions. The Constitution was ratified in 1788, after a fierce debate in the states regarding the nature of the proposed new government. The new administration under President George Washington came to power in New York in March 1789. The Constitution Amendment was pioneered in Congress by James Madison as a guarantee to those cautious about federal power, guaranteeing the inalienable rights that form the basis for the revolution. The amendment was ratified by the state in 1791.
National debt
National debt falls into three categories after the American Revolution. The first is $ 12 million paid to foreigners, mostly money borrowed from France. There is general agreement to pay off foreign debt at full value. The national government owes $ 40 million and the state government owes $ 25 million to Americans who have sold food, horses and supplies to revolutionary forces. There are also other debts consisting of promissory notes issued during the Revolutionary War to soldiers, traders, and farmers who receive these payments under the premise that the new Constitution will create a government that will repay these debts in the end.
The cost of each state's war adds up to $ 114 million compared to $ 37 million by the central government. In 1790, Congress combined the remaining state debt with foreign and domestic debt into a national debt of $ 80 million upon the recommendation of the first Minister of Finance Alexander Hamilton. Everyone receives a nominal value for wartime certificates, so national honor will be preserved and national credit is set.
Ideology and factions
The population of 13 colonies is not homogeneous in their political views and attitudes. Loyalty and loyalty vary greatly in the region and community and even within the family, and sometimes shifts during the Revolution.
Ideology behind Revolution
The American Enlightenment is an important precursor of the American Revolution. The chief among the ideas of the American Enlightenment is the concept of the Law of Nature, Natural Rights, the Agreement of the Order, Individualism, Wealth, Self-Owning, Self-Determination, liberalism, republicanism and fear of corruption. Collectively, the acceptance of these concepts by more and more American colonists began to cultivate an intellectual environment that would lead to a new sense of political and social identity.
Liberalism
John Locke's (1632-1704) idea of ​​freedom influenced political thought behind the revolution, especially through its indirect influence on British writers such as John Trenchard, Thomas Gordon, and Benjamin Hoadly, whose political ideas in turn had a powerful influence on American revolutionaries. Locke is often referred to as "the philosopher of the American Revolution" because of his work in the theory of the Social Contract and the Natural Rights underlying the political ideology of the Revolution. Locke Two Treatises of Government published in 1689 was very influential. He argues that all human beings are created equally free, and therefore the government requires "the consent of the governed." In America at the end of the 18th century, beliefs were still widespread in "equality by creation" and "right by creation".
The "social contract" theory affects the belief among many Founders that among the "natural rights" of men is the right of the people to overthrow their leaders, should the leaders betray the historical rights of the English. In the case of the writing of state and national constitutions, the Americans used much of Montesquieu's analysis of British "constitutional" constitutional wisdom (mixed government).
Republicanism
The major motivating force behind the overthrow of monarchy and aristocracy is the American embrace of a political ideology called "republicanism," dominant in the colonies by 1775 but less important in Britain. Republicanism was inspired by the "state party" in Great Britain, whose criticism of the British government stressed that corruption is a terrible reality in Britain. Americans fear that corruption has crossed the Atlantic; The commitment of most Americans to the values ​​of the republic and their rights evokes the revolutionary spirit, as Britain is increasingly seen as very corrupt and hostile to American interests. Britain seems to threaten the established freedoms enjoyed by the American people. The greatest threat to freedom is described as corruption - not only in London but also at home. The colonists attribute it to luxury, and especially to the inherited aristocracy, which they condemn.
The Founding Fathers are strong supporters of the values ​​of the republic, especially Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, George Washington, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton, which requires men to place civilian duties in front of their personal. desire. Men have a civil obligation to be prepared and willing to fight for the rights and freedoms of their citizens. John Adams wrote to Mercy Otis Warren in 1776, agreeing with some of the classical Greek and Roman thinkers that "Public Priority can not exist without personality, and Virtue is the only public foundation of the Republic." He continues:
There must be a positive Passion for the public good, Public Interest, Honor, Power, and Glory, established in the People's Mind, or no Republican Government, nor true Liberty. And this public passion should excel for all personal Passion. Men must be ready, they should be proud of themselves, and gladly sacrifice their Preferences, Likes, and Their personal interests, not their personal relationships and dear relationships, as they Stand in Competition with the Rights of the people.
For women, "pioneering mothers" become ideal, exemplified by Abigail Adams and Mercy Otis Warren; The first task of republican women is to instill republican values ​​in their children and to avoid luxury and arrogance.
Blending republicanism and liberalism
Several republics have emerged throughout history, like the Roman Republic in the ancient world, but none have been based on liberal principles. The Thomas Paine Pamphlet Common Sense appeared in January 1776, after the Revolution began. It is widely distributed and lent, and is often read aloud at the bar, making a significant contribution to spreading republicanism and liberalism ideas together, reinforcing the enthusiasm for separation from Britain, and encouraging recruitment for the Continental Army.
Paine gave new arguments and was widely accepted for independence by advocating a complete pause with history. Common Sense is oriented toward the future in a way that forces readers to make direct choices. It offers a solution for Americans who are disgusted and worried about the threat of tyranny.
The Impact of the Great Awakening
The dissident churches of the time (Protestant, non-Church of England), in the words of Patricia Bonomi, "school of democracy". President John Witherspoon of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) wrote widely circulated sermons that linked the American Revolution with biblical teachings. Throughout the colonies, opposing Protestant pastors (Congregationalists, Baptists, and Presbyterians) preached the themes of the Revolution in their sermons, while most Church of England pastors proclaimed loyalty to the king, the titular head of the British state church. Religious motivation to fight tyranny extends beyond the socioeconomic line to include the rich and the poor, men and women, border people and townspeople, farmers and traders.
The declaration also refers to the "Law of Nature and the God of Nature" as a justification for the American separation of the British monarchy. Most Americans in the 18th century believed that nature, the whole universe, was God's creation and he was the "God of Nature". Everything, including humans, is part of the "universal order of things", which begins with God and is guided by its care. Therefore, the signatories of the Declaration declare their "dependence on the Protection of Divine Providence", and they appeal to "Supreme Court Justices to justify their intentions." Like most of his compatriots, George Washington is firmly convinced that he is an instrument of care, for the benefit of the American people and all mankind.
Historian Bernard Bailyn argues that contemporary evangelicalism challenged the traditional notion of the hierarchy of nature by preaching that the Bible teaches that all men are equal, so that the true value of a man lies in its moral behavior, not in its class. Kidd argues that religious defiance, trust in God as a source of human rights, and sharing beliefs about sin, virtue, and divine providence work together to unite rationalists and evangelicals and thus encourage America's opposition to the Empire. Bailyn, on the other hand, denies that religion plays a very important role. Alan Heimert argues that the anti-authoritarianism of the New Light is essential to advance democracy in colonial American society and set the stage for confrontation with British monarchical and aristocratic power.
Class and psychology of factions
Looking back, John Adams concluded in 1818:
The revolution took place before the war began. The revolution is in the minds and hearts of the people... The radical change in people's principles, opinions, sentiments, and affection is the true American Revolution.
In terms of class, Loyalists tend to have long social and economic ties with British merchants and government; for example, leading traders in big port cities like New York, Boston, and Charleston tend to be Loyalists, just as men are involved with the feather trade along the northern border. In addition, the colonial government officials and their staff, those who have established positions and status to defend, prefer to maintain relations with Great Britain. They are often associated with British families in England by marriage as well.
In contrast, Patriots by numbers tended to yeomen farmers, especially in the border areas of New York and inland Pennsylvania, Virginia and down the Appalachian mountains. They are craftsmen and small traders. The leaders of both Patriots and Loyalists are educated people, possessed classes. The Patriots include many prominent people from planting classes from Virginia and South Carolina, for example, who were leaders during the Revolution, and formed a new government at the national and state levels.
To understand the opposing group, historians have assessed the evidence of their hearts and minds. In the mid-20th century, the historian Leonard Woods Labaree identified eight characteristics of the Loyalists who made them essentially conservative; traits contrary to the characteristics of the Patriots. Older and better men, Loyalists tend to resist innovation. They consider the resistance to the Crown - which they insist is the only legitimate government - morally wrong, while the Patriots think morality is on their side.
Loyalists become alienated when the Patriots use violence, such as burning houses and sprinkling and feathers. Loyalists want to take a centric position and refuse the Patriot's request to declare their opposition to the Crown. Many Loyalists, especially traders in port cities, have maintained a strong and longstanding relationship with the UK (often with business and family ties to other parts of the United Kingdom).
Many Loyalists realize that independence is bound to come in the end, but they fear that the revolution can cause anarchy, tyranny or mass rule. In contrast, the prevailing attitude among Patriots, who make systematic efforts to use mass violence in a controlled way, is the desire to take the initiative. Labaree also wrote that Loyalists are pessimists who have no trust in the future displayed by the Patriots.
Historians of the early twentieth century, such as J. Franklin Jameson, examined the class composition of the Patriot cause, seeking evidence of class warfare in the revolution. In the last 50 years, historians have abandoned the interpretation, and more emphasized the high level of ideological unity. Just as there are rich and poor Loyalists, Patriots are a 'mixed lot', with richer and better educated are more likely to be officers in the Army.
The ideological demands always come first: Patriots view freedom as a means of gaining freedom from British oppression and taxation and, above all, to reaffirm what they perceive as their right as the subject of English. Most yeomen farmers, craftsmen and small traders join the Patriots for demanding more political equality. They were particularly successful in Pennsylvania but less so in New England, where John Adams attacked Pense Sense Thomas Paine for his "absurd democratic ideas" he proposed.
King George III
War became a private matter for the king, fueled by his growing conviction that Britain's leniency would be perceived as a weakness by America. The king also sincerely believes that he defends the British constitution against usurpers, instead of opposing fighters fighting for their natural rights.
Patriots
At that time, the revolutionaries were called "Patriots", "Whigs", "Congress-men", or "Americans". They include various social and economic classes, but agree on the need to defend the rights of Americans and uphold the principles of republicanism in terms of rejecting monarchy and aristocracy, while emphasizing civil virtue on the part of citizens. The newspaper is a fortress of patriotism (though there are some Loyalist newspapers), and prints many pamphlets, announcements, letters and patriotic statements.
According to historian Robert Calhoon, the consensus of historians is that 40-45% of the white population in the Thirteen Colonies supports the Patriot cause, 15-20% in favor of the Loyalists, and the rest is neutral or remain low-profile. Mark Lender explores why ordinary people become rebels against England even though they are unfamiliar with the ideological reasons offered. They hold a very strong sense of "right" that they feel British infringe - a right that emphasizes local autonomy, fair trade, and government with consent. They are very sensitive to tyrannical problems, which they see manifested in the British response to the Boston Tea Party. The arrival in Boston from the British Army increased the sense of their rights being violated, which caused anger and demand for revenge. They have confidence that God is on their side.
Loyalist
The consensus of the scholars is that about 15-20% of the white population remains loyal to the British Empire. Those who actively supported the king were known at the time as "Loyalists", "Tories", or "King of men". The Loyalists never controlled the territory unless the British Army occupied it. Loyalists are usually older, less willing to break up with old loyalty, often connected with the Church of England, and include many established traders with strong business connections across the Empire, as well as royal officials such as Thomas Hutchinson from Boston. There are 500 to 1,000 black loyalists held as slaves by patriots, fleeing to the British line and joining the British army. Partly
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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