The War of the American Revolution (1775-1783), also known as the American War of Independence , is a global war that began as a conflict between Great Britain and the Thirteen Colonies that declared independence as America Union. For political history, see the American Revolution. For a brief summary see US History (1776-1989)
After 1765, the philosophical and political differences further affected the relationship between Great Britain and its colonies. Patriot's protest against unrepresentative taxation follows the Stamp Act and escalates into a boycott, which culminated in 1773 with Sons of Liberty destroying tea deliveries in Boston Harbor. England responded by closing Boston Harbor and passing a series of punitive measures against the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The Massachusetts colonies responded with the Suffolk Resolution, and they established a shadow government that seized control of the countryside from the Crown. Twelve colonies formed the Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, forming committees and conventions that effectively seized power.
The British attempt to disarm the Massachusetts militia in Concord in April 1775 led to open fighting. The militia troops then surrounded Boston, forcing a British evacuation in March 1776, and Congress appointed George Washington to lead the Continental Army. Simultaneously, the American effort to attack Quebec and increase the insurgency against the British failed. On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress voted for independence, issuing a declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe launched a British counterattack, capturing New York City and abandoning American spirit at low tides. However, victories at Trenton and Princeton restored American confidence. In 1777, the British launched an invasion of Quebec under John Burgoyne, intending to isolate the New British Colony. Instead of helping this effort, Howe brought his troops into a separate campaign against Philadelphia, and Burgoyne was convincingly defeated at Saratoga in October 1777.
Burgoyne's defeat has drastic consequences; France formally allied with America and entered the war in 1778, and Spain joined the war of the following year as a French ally but not as an ally of the United States. In 1780, the Kingdom of Mysore invaded England in India, and tensions between England and the Netherlands erupted into an open war. In North America, Britain launched a "Southern strategy" led by Charles Cornwallis who depended on Loyalist rebellion, but too few advanced. Cornwallis suffered a reversal in King's Mountain and Cowpens. He retreated to Yorktown, Virginia, intending to evacuate, but a fierce French naval victory left him unable to escape. The French-American army led by the Comte de Rochambeau and Washington then besieged the Cornwallis army and, without signs of relief, he surrendered in October 1781.
The Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory in Parliament, and surrendered to surrender them in the wind. In early 1782, Parliament decided to end all operations of the attacks in North America, but the war continued in Europe and India. England remained under siege in Gibraltar but scored big victories over the French navy. On September 3, 1783, the parties to the treaty signed the Paris Treaty in which the British agreed to recognize the sovereignty of the United States and formally end the war. French involvement proved to be decisive, but France gained little profit and suffered a crippling debt. Spain made some minor territorial gains but failed in its major goal of restoring Gibraltar. The Dutch were defeated with all charges and forced to surrender their territory to Great Britain. In India, the war against Mysore and its allies ended in 1784 without any territorial changes.
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Tax disputes
Parliament passed the Stamp Act in 1765. The colonists condemned the tax because their right as an Englishman protected them from taxation by Parliament in which they had no elected representatives. Parliament argues that the colonies were "virtually represented", an idea that was criticized throughout the Empire. Parliament lifted the action in 1766; however, it also affirms its right to pass legislation binding the colony. From 1767, Parliament began passing legislation to increase income for civil servant salaries, ensuring their loyalty while inadvertently increasing hatred among the colonists, and the opposition soon widespread.
Enforcing actions proved difficult. The seizure of the Lifeboat Liberty in 1768 because suspicion of smuggling triggered the riots. In response, British troops occupied Boston, and Parliament threatened to extradite the colony to face trial in Britain. Tensions escalated after the assassination of Christopher Seider by customs officers in 1770 and escalated into anger after British troops fired on civilians at the Boston Massacre. In 1772, the colonists in Rhode Island went up and set fire to a customs schooner. Parliament later revoked all taxes except tea taxes, passed the Tea Act of 1773, attempted to force the colonists to buy East India Company tea where Townshend's duties were paid, thus implicitly approving the supremacy of parliament. The tea landing was rejected in all the colonies, but the Massachusetts governor allowed the English tea ship to remain in Boston Harbor. So the Liberty Kids destroyed the tea chest, an incident later known as the "Boston Tea Party".
Parliament then passes a punishing law. It shut down Boston Harbor until the tea was paid and repealed the Massachusetts Charter, taking upon themselves the right to directly appoint the Massachusetts Board of Governors. In addition, the royal governor was given the power to undermine local democracy. Further action allows the extradition of officials to court elsewhere in the Empire, if the governor feels that a fair trial can not be secured locally. The unclear cost-of-action policy for travel expenses causes few people who have the ability to testify, and the colonists argue that it will allow officials to harass them with impunity. Further legislation allows the governor to crush troops on private property without permission. The invaders called these measures "Unsynodised Scripts," and they argued that both their constitutional rights and their natural rights were violated, seeing it as a threat to the whole of America. The action was widely opposed, encouraging neutral parties to support the Patriot and limit Loyalist sentiments.
Colonial response
The invaders responded by establishing the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, effectively removing the Royal control over colonies outside Boston. Meanwhile, representatives of the twelve colonies hosted the First Continental Congress to respond to the crisis. The congress narrowly rejected a proposal to create an American parliament to act in conjunction with the British Parliament; Instead, they passed a union that declared a trade boycott against Britain. The Congress also affirmed that Parliament had no authority over internal US affairs, but they were willing to approve trade rules for the interests of the empire, and they authorized committees and conventions to enforce a boycott. The boycott was effective, as imports from the UK fell 97% in 1775 compared to 1774.
Parliament refused to surrender. In 1775, he declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and impose a colony blockade. It was then passed by law to restrict colonial trade to the West Indies and British Isles. Colonial ships were banned from Newfoundland cod fishery, a measure that delighted Canadiens but ruined New England's economy. This escalating tension led to fighting for weapons and pushing colonies into open war. Thomas Gage was Commander-in-Chief of British and Massachusetts military governor, and he received orders on April 14, 1775 to disarm the local militia.
Maps American Revolutionary War
The course of the war
Warning split (1775-1776)
On April 18, 1775, 700 soldiers were sent to confiscate the militia weapons stored in Concord. The fighting broke out, forcing customers to withdraw troops to Boston. Last night, local militia gathered and surrounded Boston. On May 25, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with the generals of William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Henry Clinton. Britain captured the Charlestown peninsula on June 17 after an expensive frontal assault, which caused Howe to replace Gage. Many senior officers were anxious over the attack, which had made them a bit, while Gage wrote to London stressing the need for a large army to suppress the insurgency. On July 3, George Washington took command of the Continental Army that besieged Boston. Howe did not try to attack, shocking Washington. A plan was denied to attack the city, and the Americans instead strengthened Dorchester Heights in early March 1776 with heavy artillery drawn from an attack on the Ticonderoga Fortress. Britain was allowed to retreat without interruption on March 17, and they sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia. Washington then moves troops to New York.
Beginning in August 1775, the American Privateers began attacking villages in Nova Scotia, first in Saint John, then Charlottetown and Yarmouth. They continued on 1776 in Canso and then ground attack on Fort Cumberland.
Meanwhile, British officials in Quebec began lobbying Indian tribes to support them, while the Americans urged them to maintain their neutrality. In April 1775, Congress feared Anglo-Indian attacks from Canada and passed the invasion of Quebec. Quebec has a largely Francophone population and has been under British rule for only 12 years, and Americans expect that they will be welcomed freely from the UK. The Americans attacked Quebec City on December 31 after a difficult but defeated march. After a loose siege, America withdrew on May 6, 1776. The failed counterattack on June 8 ended the American operation in Quebec. However, Britain could not perform aggressive pursuits because of American ships on Lake Champlain. On 11 October, England defeated the American squadron, forcing them to retreat to Ticonderoga and end the campaign. The Patriots' invasion costs their support in British public opinion, while an aggressive anti-Loyalist policy diluted Canadien support. The Patriots continue to see Quebec as a strategic destination, although no further attempts to strike have ever been made.
In Virginia, Lord Dunmore's governor of the Kingdom has been trying to disarm the militia as tensions escalate, even though no fighting is broken. He issued a proclamation on November 7, 1775 promising freedom for slaves who fled from their Patriot lords to fight for the Kingdom. Dunmore's forces were ruled by Patriots on the Great Bridge, and Dunmore escaped to naval vessels anchored off Norfolk. The subsequent negotiations failed, so Dunmore ordered the ships to destroy the city.
The fighting broke out on November 19 in South Carolina between the Loyalist and Patriot militia, and the Loyalists were then expelled from the colony. Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina to reassert colonial rule in the South, but they were defeated convincingly and Loyalist sentiment was subdued. Regular British forces began to recapture South Carolina and launched an attack on Charleston on 28 June 1776, but failed and effectively left the South in control of the Patriot until 1780.
The lack of gunpowder has caused Congress to endorse an expedition against the Bahamian colony in the British West Indies to secure the arms there. On March 3, 1776, the Americans landed after a bloodless shootout, and local militia did not offer any resistance. They confiscated all the supplies they could fit and sailed away on 17 March. The squadron arrived in New London, Connecticut on April 8, after a brief battle with Royal Navy frigate HMS Glasgow on April 6.
Political reaction
After the battle began, Congress launched the last attempt to prevent the war, which was rejected by Parliament as insincere. King George then issued the Proclamation of the Uprising on August 23, 1775, which served only to encourage the colonists in their determination to become independent. After a speech by the King, Parliament rejected coercive action on the colony by 170 votes. The British Tories rejected the compromise, while Whigs argued that the current policy would push the colonists toward independence. Despite the opposition, the King himself began to micromanize the war effort. The Irish parliament promised to send troops to America, and Irish Catholics were allowed into the military for the first time. Irish Protestants prefer Americans, while Catholics prefer the King.
Early animosity provided a miserable military lesson for the British, causing them to rethink their view of colonial military capability. The weak British response gave Patriot an advantage, and England lost control over every colony. Soldiers have been deliberately kept small in Britain since 1688 to prevent abuse of power by the King. Parliament secured agreements with small German states for additional troops and sent 32,000 troops to America after a year, the largest ever sent out of Europe at the time.
In the colonies, the success of Thomas Paine's Common Sense pamphlet has encouraged public support for independence. On July 2, Congress voted in favor of independence with twelve affirmatives and one abstention, issuing a declaration on July 4. Washington read the declaration to his subordinates and New Yorkers on July 9, encouraging the masses to undermine the main statue. King and melted it to make bullets. The British Tories criticized the signatories for not extending the same standard of equality to the slaves.
Patriots follow independence with the Test Act, which requires citizens to swear allegiance to the country in which they live, intending to root out neutral or opponents of independence. Failure to do so means the possibility of imprisonment, exile, or even death. American Tories are prohibited from public office, prohibited from practicing medicine and law, forced to pay increased taxes, or even prohibited from executing a will or a guardian for orphans. Congress allows countries to seize Loyalist properties to fund the war. Some Quakers who remained neutral seized their property. Countries then prevent Loyalists from collecting their debts.
UK counterattack (1776-1777)
After rejoining in Halifax, William Howe decided to fight with the Americans. He sailed in June 1776 and began landing troops on Staten Island near the entrance to New York Harbor on July 2. Due to bad military intelligence, Washington divides its troops into positions on Manhattan Island and crosses the East River on western Long Island, and informal attempts to negotiate peace are rejected by America. On August 27, Howe besieged Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights. Howe held off his subordinates from the pursuit, opting to besiege Washington instead.
Washington withdrew to Manhattan without losing people or weapons. After the withdrawal, the Staten Peace Forum Peace Conference failed to negotiate peace, because the British delegation had no authority to recognize independence. Howe then took control of New York City on September 15, and failed to bring Americans the next day. He tried to besiege Washington, but the Americans managed to pull away. On October 28, Britain fought an unequivocal act against Washington, where Howe refused to attack Washington's troops instead of focusing his efforts on a hill with no strategic value.
The Washington Retreat left its troops isolated, and the British captured an American fort on November 16, taking 3,000 prisoners and as much as historians historians call "the worst defeat of the whole war". The Washington army quit four days later. Henry Clinton then arrested Newport, Rhode Island, an operation he opposed, feeling that 6,000 troops assigned to him could get better in Washington's pursuit. American prisoners were then sent to famous prison ships where more American soldiers and sailors died of disease and neglect than died in every combined battle of war. Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to stop, and Washington marched without interruption.
The view of the American cause is bleak; The Army has shrunk to less than 5,000 people and will be further reduced when the registration expires at the end of the year. Popular support is faltering, temper tide, and Congress leaves Philadelphia. Loyalist activity increased after the defeat of America, especially in New York.
The news campaign was well received in the UK. The celebrations take place in London, public support reaches its peak, and the King bestows the Order of the Bath to William Howe. Success leads to predictions that England can win within a year. America's defeat reveals what a writer sees as Washington's strategic deficiency, such as dividing numerically weak soldiers in the face of a stronger, inexperienced staff misread the situation, and his troops flee in chaos when the battle begins. Meanwhile, England entered the winter and is in a good place to continue the campaign.
On December 25, 1776, Washington secretly crossed the Delaware River, and his troops controlled the Hessian garrison in Trenton, New Jersey the next morning, taking 900 prisoners. The decisive victory saves the spirit of the troops and gives new hope for independence. Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton, but his efforts were repulsed on 2 January. Washington surpassed Cornwallis that night, and defeated his rearguard the following day. The victory proved useful in convincing France and Spain that America was a valuable ally, and restored the spirit in the army. Washington entered winter in Morristown, New Jersey on January 6, despite a protracted guerrilla conflict that continues. While camping, Howe did not try to attack, deeply admired Washington.
The northern strategy of England fails (1777-1778)
In December 1776, John Burgoyne returned to London to set up a strategy with Lord George Germain. Burgoyne's plan was to build control of the Champlain-George-Hudson route from New York to Quebec, isolating New England. Efforts can then be concentrated on the southern colony, where it is believed Loyalist support is in abundance.
Burgoyne's plan is to lead troops along Lake Champlain, while strategic diversions advance along the Mohawk River, and both will meet in Albany. Burgoyne departed on June 14, 1777, quickly capturing Ticonderoga on 5 July. Leaving 1,300 people behind as garrison, Burgoyne continued progress. Slow progress; Americans blocked roads, destroyed bridges, blocked streams, and smothered food areas. Meanwhile, Barry St.'s diverting column Ledger besieged Fort Stanwix. St. Ledger resigned to Quebec on August 22 after his Indian support left him. On August 16, a foraging expedition in Hessia was defeated at Bennington, and more than 700 troops were arrested. Meanwhile, most Indian support Burgoyne left him and Howe told Burgoyne that he would launch his campaign in Philadelphia as planned, and would not be able to provide any assistance.
Burgoyne decided to continue. On September 19, he attempted to flank the American position, and clashed at Freeman's Farm. England won, but at a cost of 600 casualties. Burgoyne then digs, but suffers from continuous bleeding from the deserters, and the critical supply begins to thin. On October 7, British reconnaissance against the American line was repulsed with huge losses. Burgoyne then retreated with American troops in pursuit, and on October 13, he was surrounded. With no hope of help and supplies run out, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17, and 6,222 soldiers became American captives. The decisive success prompted France to enter into war as an ally of the United States, securing the last elements needed for victory over Britain, namely foreign aid.
Meanwhile, Howe launched his campaign against Washington, although his initial attempt to bring him to battle in June 1777 failed. Howe refused to attack Philadelphia by land through New Jersey, or by sea through Delaware Bay, although both options would allow him to help Burgoyne if necessary. Instead, he takes his troops on a time-consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay, making him completely unable to help Burgoyne. This decision is very difficult to understand, Howe's criticism accuses him of treason.
Howe besieged and defeated Washington on September 11, though he failed to follow up the victory and destroy his troops. The British victory at Willistown left Philadelphia powerless, and Howe seized the city without a fight on 26 September. Howe then moved 9,000 people to Germantown, north of Philadelphia. Washington launched a surprise attack on Howe's garrison on October 4, which was eventually repulsed. Once again, Howe did not follow up his victory, leaving the Americans intact and capable of fighting. Later, after several days of investigating American defenses at White Marsh, Howe mysteriously ordered the retreat to Philadelphia, surprising both sides. Howe ignored the vulnerable back of America, where an attack could rob his baggage and supplies from Washington. On December 19, Washington troops entered winter in the Valley Forge. Bad conditions and supply problems resulted in the deaths of around 2,500 soldiers. Howe, only 20 miles (32 km) away, did not try to attack, which critics say could end the war.
The Continental Army is incorporated through a new training program, overseen by Baron von Steuben, introducing the most modern Prussia drilling methods. Meanwhile, Howe resigned and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778. Clinton received orders to leave Philadelphia and fortify New York following the entry of France into war. On June 18, Britain left Philadelphia, with Americans resurgent in pursuit. Both soldiers fought in Monmouth Court House on June 28, with the Americans holding the fields, greatly boosting their spirits and confidence. In July, both forces returned in the same position as the previous two years.
Foreign intervention
The defeat in Saratoga caused considerable anxiety in Britain over foreign intervention. The North Ministry requested reconciliation with the colonies by agreeing to their original request, although Lord North refused to grant independence. There is no positive answer received from America.
The French Foreign Minister Comte de Vergennes was very anti-British, and he searched for casus belli to go to war with Britain after the conquest of Canada in 1763. France had veiled supplying America through the neutral Dutch port since the beginning of the war, proved invaluable throughout Saratoga's campaign. The French public liked the war, though Vergennes and King Louis XVI hesitated, due to military and financial risks. The American victory at Saratoga convinced the French that supporting the Patriots was beneficial, but it also brought great concern. The king is concerned that a British concession will be accepted, and that he will then reconcile with the Colonies to attack French and Spanish ownership in the Caribbean. To prevent this, France formally recognized the United States on February 6, 1778 and was followed by a military alliance. France aims to drive Britain away from Newfoundland fisheries, ending restrictions on Dunkirk sovereignty, regaining free trade in India, restoring Senegal and Dominica, and restoring the terms of the Utrecht Treaty relating to Anglo-French trade.
Spain was wary of provoking a war with Britain before he was ready, so he secretly provided Patriots through his colonies in New Spain. Congress hopes to persuade Spain into an open alliance, so the first American Commission met with Count of Aranda in 1776. Spain is still reluctant to make an initial commitment, due to the lack of direct French involvement, threats to their treasure fleet, and the possibility of war with Portugal, neighboring Spain and a close ally of England. However, Spain reiterated its desire to support America the following year, hoping to weaken the British empire. In the Spanish-Portuguese War (1776-77), the Portuguese threat was neutralized. On 12 April 1779, Spain signed the Aranjuez Treaty with France and went to war against England. Spain is trying to restore Gibraltar and Menorca in Europe, as well as Mobile and Pensacola in Florida, and also to expel Britain from Central America.
Meanwhile, George III succumbed to subduing America while England had a European war to fight. He did not welcome the war with France, but he believed that Britain had made all necessary steps to avoid it and to quote England's victory over France in the Seven Years War as an excuse to remain optimistic. England tried in vain to find a powerful ally to involve France, leaving it isolated, preventing Britain from focusing most of its efforts on one theater, and forcing a massive diversion of military resources from America. Nevertheless, the King was determined never to recognize American independence and ravage the colony indefinitely, or until they begged to return to the yoke of the Kingdom. Mahan argues that Britain's attempts to battle in many theaters simultaneously without major allies are fundamentally flawed, arguing for the absence of mutual support, revealing a defeated force in detail.
Since the outbreak of the conflict, Britain has asked its neighbor, the neutral Republic of the Netherlands, to lend him the use of the Scots Brigade to the American service, but pro-American sentiment among Dutch society forced them to refuse the request. As a result, the British sought to request several agreements for full Dutch military support, but the Republic still refused. In addition, American troops are being given arms by Dutch merchants through their West Indies colonies. The French supply to America has also passed the Dutch ports. The Republic maintained a free trade with France after the French war declaration in Britain, citing previous concessions by Britain on the issue. England responded by seizing Dutch shipments, and even firing on the ship. Consequently, Republicans join the First League of Armed Neutrality to uphold their neutral status. The Republic has also provided protection for American privateers and has drafted a trade agreement with America. The British argued that this action was contrary to the Republic's neutral stance and declared war in December 1780.
International war broke out (1778-1780)
Europe
As soon as France declared war, the French and British fleets made indecent acts against Ushant on July 27, 1778. Spain entered the war on 12 April 1779, with the primary aim of capturing Gibraltar, the Spanish troops under Duc de Crillon besieged the Rock on 24 June. The sea blockade, however, was relatively weak, and the British were able to supply the garrison. Meanwhile, the plan was formulated for a combined French-Spanish attack on the British mainland, but the expedition failed because of a combination of poor planning, illness, logistical problems, and high financial expenditure. However, different Franco-American squadrons did meet some success on Sept. 23 under John Paul Jones. On January 16, 1780, Royal Navy under George Rodney scored a great victory over Spain, weakening the Gibraltar's sea blockade.
The French-Spanish fleet commanded by Luis de CÃÆ'³rdova was intercepted and convincingly defeated the great British convoy of the Azores led by John Moutray on 9 August which led to the West Indies. The defeat was a major disaster for Britain, who lost 52 merchant ships, 5 East Indiamen, 80,000 muskets, 40,000 troops, 294 weapons and 3,144 guns, making it one of the most complete maritime catches ever made. The loss is worth about £ 1.5m (£ 181million in money today), which is a huge blow to UK trade.
America
The French blockaded the sugar islands of Barbados and Jamaica, intent on destroying British trade. The French troops led by the Marquis de BouillÃÆ' Â © captured Dominica on 7 September 1778 to improve communication among French Caribbean islands and to invade private. England defeated French naval forces on December 15 and arrested St. Nicholas. Lucia on December 28th. Both fleets received aid through the first half of 1779, but the French under the Comte d'Estaing had an advantage in the Caribbean and began to seize the British territory, seizing St. Vincent on June 18 and Grenada on July 4th. The British fleet under John Byron was tactically defeated on July 6, after chasing d'Estaing of Grenada, the worst loss experienced by the Royal Navy since 1690. The naval battle continued until 17 April 1780, when the British and French fleets clashed without hesitation from Martinik.
At New Orleans Governor Bernardo de GÃÆ'¡lvez decided to conquer West Florida and Mobile.
In Central America, the Guatemalan defense is a priority for Spain. Britain intends to capture the key fortress of San Fernando de Omoa and expel Spain from the region. After an inadequate first attempt, 1,200 British troops led by William Dalrymple arrived on October 16, and they captured the castle on October 20. However, Britain suffered greatly from illness and was forced to leave the fort on November 29; Spanish troops then reoccupied it. In 1780, Jamaican governor John Dalling planned an expedition to cut New Spain into two by capturing Granada, which would then allow them to fully control the San Juan River. The British expedition began on February 3, 1780, led by John Polson and Horatio Nelson. They reached Fort San Juan on March 17 and surrounded, capturing him on April 29. The British were hit by disease and ran out of food because of bad logistics. They resigned on November 8, the expedition suffered a decisive defeat; about 2,500 soldiers have been killed, making it the most expensive British war disaster.
India
The British East India Company moved quickly to take ownership of France in India when they learned about the hostilities with France, and they took Pondicherry on October 19, 1778 after a two-week siege. The company decided to expel France completely from India, and they seized the port of Malabar in 1779 where the French arms were bypassed.
MahÃÆ' © was under the protection of Mysore's ruler, Hyder Ali (Tipu Sultan), and the tension was already inflamed as Britain supported the rebel Malabar who had risen up against him; so the fall of war triggered by Mahogany. Hyder Ali invaded the Carnatic region in July 1780 and surrounded Tellicherry and Arcot. The British aid force of 7,000 people under William Baille was intercepted and destroyed by Tipu Sultan on September 10, the worst defeat suffered by European troops in India at the time.
Ali then renews the siege at Arcot instead of pressing for a decisive victory against the second British army in Madras, arresting him on 3 November. The delay allowed British troops to regroup for campaigning the following year.
Deadlock in the North (1778-1780)
Henry Clinton withdrew from Philadelphia, consolidating his troops in New York after the British defeat at Saratoga and the entry of France into war. The French admiral Comte d'Estaing was sent to North America in April 1778 to assist Washington, and he arrived shortly after Clinton retired to New York. The French-American troops felt that the New York defense was too strong for the French fleet, and they chose to attack Newport. The effort was launched on August 29, but failed when France chose to step down, and this did not please Americans. The battle then became a dead end, with the majority of the action championed as a major battle, as happened at Chestnut Neck and Little Egg Harbor. In the summer of 1779, America captured the British post at Stony Point and Paul Hook.
In July, Clinton failed to try to persuade Washington into a decisive engagement by carrying out a major attack on Connecticut. That month, major American naval operations sought to recapture Maine, but it resulted in the worst American naval defeat to Pearl Harbor in 1941. The high frequency of Iroquois attacks on the population forced Washington to carry out punitive expeditions that destroyed a large number of Iroquois Settlements , but the effort eventually failed to stop the raids. During the winter of 1779-80, the Continental Army experienced greater difficulties than in the Valley Forge. Bad spirit; public support is being eroded by a long war; the national currency is almost worthless; troops are constrained by supply problems; desertion is common; and the entire regiment revolted over the conditions in early 1780.
In 1780, Clinton launched an attempt to recapture New Jersey. On June 7, 6,000 people stormed under Hessian general Wilhelm von Knyphausen, but they faced strong resistance from local militias. England controlled the field, but Knyphausen feared public engagement with Washington's main force and withdrew. Knyphausen and Clinton decided a second attempt two weeks later that was a strong defeat in Springfield, effectively ending Britain's ambitions in New Jersey. Meanwhile, American General Benedict Arnold has defected to Britain, and he conspires to betray key West Point fortress by passing it on to the enemy. The plot was thwarted when the British spy master John AndrÃÆ' Â © was arrested, so Arnold fled to the British line in New York. He sought to justify his betrayal by attracting the Loyalist public opinion, but the Patriot vehemently condemned him as a coward and a troublemaker.
The war to the west of Appalachians is largely confined to skirmishing and raids. A militia expedition was suspended due to bad weather in February 1778 which had decided to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River. Later in the year, a second campaign was made to seize the Illinois State from England. The Americans captured Kaskaskia on July 4 and secured Vincennes, although Vincennes was recaptured by Henry Hamilton, the British commander in Detroit. Early in 1779, the Americans counterattacked with a risky winter march, and they guaranteed the British surrender at Vincennes, carrying Hamilton prisoners.
On May 25, 1780, the British launched an expedition to Kentucky as part of a wider operation to clear up the resistance from Quebec to the Gulf coast. The expedition met only limited success, although hundreds of settlers were killed or captured. The Americans responded with a massive assault along the Mad River in August that met some success, but that did little to alleviate Indian attacks on the border. The French militia sought to seize Detroit, but ended in disaster when the Miami Indians ambushed and defeated the assembled forces on 5 November. The war in the west has become a dead end; America has no power to simultaneously defeat hostile Indians and occupy their land.
War on the South (1778-1781)
England turned their attention to conquering the South in 1778, after Loyalists in London assured them of a strong Loyalist base there. The southern campaign also has the advantage of keeping the Royal Navy closer to the Caribbean, where it is necessary to maintain a profitable colony against the French-Spanish fleet. On December 29, 1778, an expedition corps from New York captured Savannah, and British troops then moved inland to recruit Loyalist support. There was a promising early arrival in early 1779, but then a large Loyalist militia was defeated at Kettle Creek on February 14 and they had to admit their dependence on England. Britain, however, defeated the Patriot militia at Brier Creek on March 3, and then launched a failed attack in Charleston, South Carolina. The operation became famous for its high level of looting by British troops, which angered the Loyalist and Patriot colonists.
In October, a Franco-American joint effort failed to regain Savannah. In May 1780, Henry Clinton captured Charleston, took over 5,000 prisoners and effectively destroyed the Continental Army in the south. Organized American resistance in the region collapsed when Banastre Tarleton defeated the American withdrawal at Waxhaws on May 29.
Clinton returned to New York, leaving Charles Cornwallis at command in Charleston to oversee the southern war effort. Far fewer Loyalists than allegedly joined him. For a while, the war was carried out by Patriot militia who effectively suppressed the Loyalists by winning victories in Fairfield County, Lincolnton, Huck's Defeat, Stanly County and Lancaster County.
Congress appointed Horatio Gates, the winner at Saratoga, to lead the American effort in the south. He suffered a major defeat at Camden on August 16, 1780, set the stage for Cornwallis to attack North Carolina. England tried to subdue the countryside, and the Patriot militia continued to fight against them, so the Cornwallis troops sent troops to increase Loyalist troops to cover its left wing as he moved north. The wing of the Cornwallis army was almost destroyed on October 7, inexplicably breaking the Loyalist support at Carolinas. Cornwallis then canceled its face and retreated back to South Carolina. For a while, Washington replaced Gates with his trusted subordinate, Nathanael Greene.
Greene could not face England directly, so he sent troops under Daniel Morgan to recruit additional troops. Morgan then defeated the cream of British soldiers under Tarleton on 17 January 1781 at Cowpens. Cornwallis was criticized for releasing most of his troops without adequate support, but he advanced to North Carolina despite a setback, gambling that he would receive great Loyalist support there. Greene avoided the battle with Cornwallis, instead of putting his troops down through a protracted war of friction.
In March, Greene's troops have risen in sufficient size that he feels confident in facing Cornwallis. The two forces fought in the Guilford Courthouse on March 15; Greene was beaten, but the Cornwallis army suffered an irreplaceable victim. By combining this, there are far fewer Loyalists joining than previously thought British. The Cornwallis victim was such that he was forced to retreat to Wilmington for reinforcement, leaving the Patriots in control of the interior of Carolinas and Georgia.
Greene then proceeded to reclaim the South. American forces experienced a reversal at Hobkirk's Hill on April 25; Nonetheless, they continued to oust England's strategic post in the area, capturing Fort Watson and Fort Motte. Augusta was the last major UK outpost in the South outside Charleston and Savannah, but the Americans regained possession on 6 June. British troops clashed with American troops at Eutaw Springs on September 8 in a last-ditch attempt to stop Greene, but British casualties were so high that they retreated to Charleston. Small battles continued in the Carolina until the end of the war, and British troops were effectively confined in Charleston and Savannah for the remainder of the conflict.
Britain's defeat in America (1781)
Cornwallis has found that most of the American inventories in Carolinas are passing through Virginia, and he has written to Lord Germain and Clinton detailing his intention to invade. Cornwallis believes that a successful campaign there will cut supplies to Greene's army and precipitate the collapse of American resistance in the South. Clinton strongly opposed the plan, backing a campaign further north in the Chesapeake Bay area. Lord Germain wrote to Cornwallis to approve his plans and neglected to put Clinton in the decision, though Clinton was superior superior of Cornwallis, and Cornwallis then decided to move to Virginia without telling Clinton. Clinton, however, had failed to establish a coherent strategy for British operations in 1781, due to his difficult relationship with his navy counterpart Marriot Arbuthnot.
After a disaster operation in Newport and Savannah, French planners realized that closer cooperation with America was needed to achieve success. The French fleet led by the Comte de Grasse has received discretionary orders from Paris to assist a joint effort in the north if naval support is needed. Washington and the Comte de Rochambeau discussed their options. Washington encouraged attacks in New York, while Rochambeau preferred a strike in Virginia where England was less established and thus more easily defeated. The French-American movement around New York caused Clinton to be very anxious, afraid of attacks on the city. His instructions were not clear to the Cornwall people during this time, rarely forming explicit commands. However, Clinton did instruct Cornwallis to establish a fortified naval base and to transfer troops north to defend New York. Cornwallis dug in Yorktown and waited for the Royal Navy.
Washington still loves attacks in New York, but he agrees with France when they choose to send their fleets to their preferred targets from Yorktown. In August, the Franco-American joint forces moved south to coordinate with de Grasse in defeating Cornwallis. Britain did not have enough sea resources to effectively fight the French, but they sent a fleet under Thomas Graves to help Cornwallis and seek to gain naval dominance. On September 5, the French fleet convincingly defeated Graves, gave French control over the seas around Yorktown and cut Cornwallis troops out of aid and assistance. Despite continued pressure from his subordinates,
Cornwallis made no attempt to break through and engage French-American troops before they embarked on a siege, hoping that aid troops would arrive from New York, and the Franco-Americans besieged Yorktown on September 28. Cornwallis continues to think that help is near Clinton, and he abandoned his outside defense which was soon occupied by American troops - which served to accelerate the next defeat. Britain then failed in an attempt to get out of the siege across the river at Gloucester Point during a storm. Cornwallis and his subordinates are under increasing bombardment and face a diminishing supply; they agreed that their situation was untenable and negotiated the surrender on 17 October 1781, and 7,685 troops being American captives. On the same day as the surrender, 6,000 troops under Clinton had left New York, sailing to free Yorktown.
Ministry of the North collapsed
On November 25, 1781, news arrived in London of surrender in Yorktown. The Whig opposition gained traction in Parliament, and a motion was proposed on 12 December to end the war being defeated by just one vote. On February 27, 1782, the House voted against a further war in America with 19 votes.
Lord Germain was dismissed and a no-confidence motion passed to the North. The Rockingham Whig came to power and opened negotiations for peace. Rockingham died and was replaced by the Earl of Shelburne. Despite their defeat, Britain still has 30,000 troops in New York, Charleston, and Savannah. Henry Clinton was recalled and replaced by Guy Carleton who was under orders to suspend offensive operations.
The last year of the war (1781-1783)
Europe
After the enmity with the Dutch began in late 1780, Britain had moved quickly, establishing a blockade in the North Sea. Within weeks, Britain has arrested 200 Dutch merchants, and 300 others hiding in foreign ports, although political turmoil in the Republic and peace talks by both sides helped keep the conflict to a minimum. The majority of Dutch people favor military alliances with France against Britain; However, Dutch Stadtholder hampered this effort, hoping to secure an early peace. To restore diminished trade, the Dutch squadron under Johan Zoutman escorted a fleet of some 70 merchants from Texel. The Zoutman ships were intercepted by Sir Hyde Parker, which involved Zoutman at Dogger Bank on August 5, 1781. Although the contest was tactically unconvincing, the Dutch fleet did not leave the harbor again during the war, and their trading fleet remained paralyzed.
On January 6, 1781, France's attempt to catch Jersey to neutralize a UK privateering failed. Frustrated in their attempts to capture Gibraltar, the Spanish-French forces of 14,000 people under the Duc de Mahon invaded Minorca on 19 August. After the long siege of St. Philip, the British garrison under James Murray surrendered on 5 February 1782, securing a major war goal for Spain. In Gibraltar, the massive Franco-Spanish offensive on September 13, 1782 was repulsed with many casualties. On October 20, 1782, after the successful supply of Gibraltar, the British ships under Richard Howe managed to resist the battle with the French-Spanish fleet under Luis de CÃÆ'³rdova, denying the CÃÆ'³rdova dominance at sea. On February 7, 1783, after 1,322 siege days, Franco-Spanish troops retreated, convincingly defeated.
Americas
In the West Indies, on 29-30 April 1781, the Royal Navy squadron under Samuel Hood was defeated by France, led by the Comte de Grasse, which continued to seize British territory: Tobago falls on June 2; Demerara and Essequibo on January 22, 1782; St. Kitts and Nevis on February 12, despite a British naval victory on January 25; and Montserrat on February 22. In 1782, the main strategic goal of France and Spain was to seize Jamaica, whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British colony than the Thirteen Colonies. On April 7, 1782, de Grasse departed Martinique to meet with French-Spanish troops in Saint Domingue and attack Jamaica from the north. England under Hood and George Rodney pursue and convincingly defeat France from Dominica between April 9-12. Franco-Spanish plan to conquer Jamaica was destroyed, and the balance of marine power in the Caribbean shifted to the Royal Navy.
After the fall of Mobile into Spanish troops under Bernardo de GÃÆ'¡lvez, attempts to capture Pensacola were thwarted by the storm. Driven by disaster, John Campbell, the British commander in Pensacola, decided to reclaim Mobile. Campbell's expedition force of about 700 people was defeated on 7 January 1781. After reassembling in Havana, GÃÆ'¡lvez departed for Pensacola on 13 February. Arriving on March 9, the siege operation did not begin until March 24, due to the difficulty of bringing the ship into the bay. After a 45-day siege, GÃÆ'¡lvez convincingly defeated the garrison, securing the conquest of West Florida. In May, Spanish troops captured the Bahamas, though Britain relentlessly retook the islands the following year on April 18.
In Guatemala, MatÃÆ'as de GÃÆ'¡lvez led the Spanish troops in an attempt to move the English settlements along the Gulf of Honduras. GÃÆ'¡lvez catch RoatÃÆ'¡n on March 16, 1782, and then quickly took the Black River. Following the decisive naval victory in Saintes, Archibald Campbell, Jamaica Crown governor, ordered Edward Despard to take back the Black River, which he did on August 22. However, with the opening of the peace talks, and the resources committed to the French-Spanish siege of Gibraltar, no further offensive operations that occur.
Several operations were conducted against the Netherlands, although some Dutch colonies were captured by the British in 1781. Sint Eustatius, the main supply port for the Patriot, was fired by British troops under George Rodney on February 3, 1782, plundering the island's wealth.
India
After the Dutch entry into the conflict, the East Indies Company troops under Hector Munro captured the Dutch port of Negapatam after a three-week siege on October 11, 1781. Soon after, British Admiral Edward Hughes seized Trincomalee after a brief engagement on January 11, 1782.
In March 1781, French Admiral Bailli de Suffren was sent to India to assist the colonial efforts. Suffren arrived off the coast of India in February 1782, where he clashed with the British fleet under Hughes, winning a narrow tactical victory. After landing troops in Porto Novo to help Mysore, Suffren's fleet clashed with Hughes again Providien on 12 April. There was no clear winner, though Hughes's fleet was deteriorating, and he retreated to the British-controlled port of Trincomalee. Hyder Ali hopes for the French to capture the Negapatam to build the dominance of the British navy over, and this task fell to Suffren. The Suffren Armada clashed with Hughes again off Negapatam on July 6. Suffren retreated to Cuddalore, strategically defeated, and England kept control of the Negapatam. Intending to find a more suitable harbor than Cuddalore, Suffren seized Trincomalee on September 1, and succeeded in involving Hughes two days later.
Meanwhile, Ali's troops loosely blocked Vellore when the East India Company reunited. Troops under Sir Eyre Coote led a counterattack, defeating Ali at Porto Novo on 1 July 1781, Pollilur on August 27, and Sholinghur on September 27, expelling Mysorean forces from Carnatic. On February 18, 1782, Tipu Sultan defeated John Braithwaite near Tanjore, carrying all 1,800-strong prisoners. The war, at this point, reached an uncomfortable dead end. On December 7, 1782, Hyder Ali died, and the power of Mysore was inherited to his son, Tipu Sultan.
The Sultan advanced along the west coast, besieging Mangalore on May 20, 1783. Meanwhile, on the east coast, troops under James Stuart besieged the port of Cuddalore held by France on June 9, 1783. On June 20, the British naval support for the Siege was neutralized when Suffren defeated Hughes's fleet from Cuddalore, and although narrow, victory gave Suffren a chance to move England's possession in India. On June 25, Franco-Mysorean defenders made repeated appeals against the English line, despite all the failed attacks. On June 30, news arrived about the initial peace between the forces of war, and the siege effectively ended when France left the siege. Mangalore remained under siege, and surrendered to the Sultan on January 30, 1784. Small battles ensued, and Mysore and Britain reconciled on March 11.
Peace of Paris
After succumbing to Yorktown, the Whig party came to power in Britain and began to open negotiations for the cessation of hostilities. While peace negotiations are under way, British troops in America are prohibited from launching further attacks. Prime Minister Earl of Shelburne was reluctant to accept American independence as a prerequisite for peace, as Britain realized that the French economy was almost bankrupt, and reinforcements sent to the West Indies had the potential to reverse the situation there. He preferred that the colonies accept the status of Power in the Empire, although a similar offer had been rejected by the Americans in 1778. The negotiations began immediately in Paris.
America initially demanded that Quebec be handed over to them as spoils of war, a proposal imposed when Shelburne accepted American demands for the recognition of independence. On April 19, 1782, the Netherlands officially recognized the United States as a sovereign force, increasing American influence on negotiations. Spain initially hampered the negotiations, refusing to enter into peace talks until Gibraltar has been arrested. The Comte de Vergennes proposes that the American territory is confined to the eastern Appalachians; Britain will have sovereignty over the northern region of the Ohio River, under which an Indian barrier country will be established under Spanish control. The United States strongly opposed the proposal.
Americans circled their allies, recognizing that a more favorable term would be found in London. They negotiated directly with Shelburne, who hoped to make Britain a valuable American trading partner at the expense of France. To this end, Shelburne offers to surrender all land east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and south of Quebec, while also allowing American fishermen accessing rich Newfoundland fisheries. Shelburne hopes to facilitate the growth of the American population, creating a lucrative market that can be exploited by Britain without administrative costs to London. As Vergennes commented, "Britain buys peace instead of making it".
During the negotiations, Britain never consulted with its American Indian allies, forcing them to reluctantly accept the treaty. However, subsequent tensions erupted into conflicts between the Indian and the younger Americans, the biggest being the Northwest Indian War. Britain continued to try to create an Indian buffer state in the Midwest America at the end of 1814 during the War of 1812.
The UK negotiated a separate treaty with Spain, France, and the Dutch Republic. Gibraltar proved to be a stumbling block in peace talks; Spain offered to renounce their conquests in West Florida, Menorca, and the Bahamas in exchange for Gibraltar, a term Shelburne rejected aloud. Shelburne even offered to hand over East Florida, West Florida, and Menorca if Spain would release a claim on Gibraltar, terms that were grudgingly accepted. However, in the long run, new territorial profits are of little value to Spain. France's sole net gain is the Caribbean island of the Caribbean and Senegal in Africa, having agreed to return all colonial conquests to British sovereignty. Britain returned the Dutch Caribbean territory to Dutch sovereignty, in exchange for free trade rights in the Indies and control of India's Negapatnam harbor.
Initial peace articles were signed in Paris on November 30, 1782, while the introduction between Britain, Spain, France and the Netherlands continued until September 1783. The United States Confederation Congress ratified the Treaty of Paris on 14 January 1784. Copies were sent back to Europe for ratification by the other parties involved, the first to reach France in March 1784. The ratification of England occurred on 9 April 1784, and the ratified version was exchanged in Paris on May 12, 1784. The war officially ended on September 3, 1783.
The last British troops left New York City on November 25, 1783, marking the end of British rule in the new United States.
Aftermath
Victims and losses
Americans and allies
The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown. As usual in the war of that era, diseases like smallpox claimed more lives than combat. Between 1775 and 1782, smallpox epidemics broke out across North America, killing 40 people in Boston alone. Historian Joseph Ellis argues that Washington's decision to order his troops inoculate against the disease is one of his most important decisions.
Between 25,000 and 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service. Of these, about 6,800 died in combat, while at least 17,000 died of disease. The majority of the last died when British prisoners of war, mostly on board the prison in New York Harbor. If the upper limit of 70,000 is accepted as the total net loss for Patriots, it would make the conflict proportionally more deadly than the American Civil War. Uncertainty arises because of the difficulty in calculating accurately the number of people who succumb to the disease, as it is estimated that at least 10,000 people died in 1776 alone. The number of patriots who were seriously wounded or disabled by the war was estimated at 8,500 to 25,000.
The French suffered around 7,000 dead throughout the conflict; of them, 2,112 were killed in combat in American theaters.
The Netherlands suffered about 500 total deaths, due to the small scale of their conflict with Britain.
English and allies
The return of Britain in 1783 recorded 43,633 rank and file of death throughout the British Armed Forces. A table from 1781 puts the total death of the British Army in 9,372 soldiers killed in combat across America; 6,046 in North America (1775-1779), and 3,326 in the West Indies (1778-1780). In 1784, a British lieutenant compiled a detailed list of 205 British officers killed in action during the war, covering Europe, the Caribbean and the East Indies. Extrapolation based on this list puts the British Army's losses in the region of at least 4,000 people dead or died of wounds. About 7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters; of the former, an estimated 1,800 killed in combat.
About 171,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy during the war; about a quarter of them have been forced to work. About 1,240 were killed in combat, while an estimated 18,500 died from illness (1776-1780). The biggest killer in the sea is scabies, a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency. Only in 1795 the scabies was eradicated from the Royal Navy after Admiralty announced that lemon and sugar juice should be excluded among the standard daily seafarers. About 42,000 sailors went during the war. The impact on merchant shipments is considerable; an estimated 3,386 merchant ships were confiscated by enemy troops during the war; of them, 2,283 were taken by the privateer Americans themselves.
Financial debt
At the beginning of the war, the colony's economy expanded rapidly, and the white population was free to enjoy the highest standard of living in the world. The Royal Navy imposed a sea blockade during the war to paralyze the colonies financially, however, this proved unsuccessful; 90% of the population works on agriculture, not in coastal trade, and, as such, the American economy proves resilient enough to withstand the blockade.
Congress has been in great trouble throughout the conflict to finance war effort efficiently. When hard currency circulation declines, America must rely on loans from American, French, Spanish and Dutch merchants and bankers, which weigh on a young country with debilitating debt. Congress seeks to memp
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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